Bibliography of Earthquake Resources

A brief bibliography of academic resources related to earthquakes, with an empahsis on Japanese disasters.

Bauman, Catherine. 1998. The Challenge of Land Use Planning After Urban Earthquakes: Observations from the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Oakland, Calif.: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute.

Beck, James, Anne Kiremidjian, George Mader, and Robert Reitherman. 1997 Social, Economic, and System Aspects of Earthquake Recovery and Reconstruction: Year One Research Report Richmond, Calif.:  California Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering.
Abstract: The CUREe-Kajima Cooperative Research Program includes two research areas:  structural implications of ground motions; and the social, economic and system aspects of earthquake recovery and reconstruction.  This report outlines the latter effort.  Section 1 addresses research on business recovery after earthquakes.  Section 2 examines decision support, geographic information systems, damage distribution analyses, and other tools in the recovery process. Section 3 provides perspectives on governmental and business recovery after earthquake, and Section 4 discusses innovative methods and technologies for earthquake recovery and reconstruction.

Chang, Stephanie E. 2000. Disasters and transport systems: Loss, recovery and competition at the Port of Kobe after the 1995 earthquake. Journal of Transport Geography 8: 53-65.
Abstract: In the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake, the Port of Kobe (Japan) suffered severe damage that essentially shut it down and required over two years to fully repair. This paper explores the impact of the disaster on the Port, focusing on international container traffic. Prior to the disaster, Kobe had ranked sixth among container ports worldwide; in 1997, it ranked 17th. Analysis reveals that foreign transhipment cargo was especially vulnerable to loss. This loss must be seen in the context of Asian port competition; indeed, the earthquake served the highlight and accelerate pre-disaster economic trends.  Implications for seismically vulnerable ports in the US and Canada are discussed.

———. 2001. Structural change in urban economics: Recovery and long-term impacts in the 1995 Kobe earthquake. Journal of Economics and Business Administration 183, no. 1: 50-69.
Abstract: This paper assesses the occurrence of long-term impacts and structural change in the Kobe economy following the devastating 1995 Hyogoken Nambu earthquake. The issue of whether or not disasters can cause long-term loss in the context of modernized urban economies has been a matter of debate in the English language literature on disasters. It provides empirical insight on the issue based on data for the City of Kobe in the first 3-4 years of the recovery process. It considers, at the outset, evidence for Kobe’s overall economic recovery. In so doing, the analysis defines several phases of recovery and identifies 3 years as an approximate timeframe for distinguishing short-term from long-term impacts in the Kobe case. It then reviews standard economic indicators and finds that these provide ambiguous evidence for the occurrence of long-term impact from the disaster for the overall economy. However, more in-depth investigation finds that for some specific sectors of the economy, long-term loss and structural change did occur as a result of the disaster. The remainder of the paper focuses on three particularly significant examples- the Port of Kobe, the manufacturing sector, and the spatial economic structure of Kobe City. In each of these cases, it demonstrates that the earthquake caused clear structural change, generally accelerating trends that had been underway prior to the disaster. The paper concludes by discussing research needs and policy implications for urban economics at risk from natural disasters.

Chang, Stephanie E. 2010.  Urban disaster recovery: A measurement framework and its application to the 1995 Kobe earthquake. Disasters 34, no. 2: 303-27.
Abstract: This paper provides a framework for assessing empirical patterns of urban disaster recovery through the use of statistical indicators. Such a framework is needed to develop systematic knowledge on how cities recover from disasters. The proposed framework addresses such issues as defining recovery, filtering out exogenous influences unrelated to the disaster, and making comparisons across disparate areas or events. It is applied to document how Kobe City, Japan, recovered from the catastrophic 1995 earthquake. Findings indicate that while aggregate population regained pre-disaster levels in ten years, population had shifted away from the older urban core. Economic recovery was characterized by a three to four year temporary boost in reconstruction activities, followed by settlement at a level some ten per cent below pre-disaster levels. Other long-term effects included substantial losses of port activity and sectoral shifts toward services and large businesses. These patterns of change and disparity generally accelerated pre-disaster trends.

Haynes Shea, Gail, ed. 2000. Lessons Learned Over Time, Volume III: Bridge Repairs After the 1995 Kobe (Hyogo-Ken Nanbu Earthquake); The 1995 Kobe (Hyogo-Ken Nanbu Earthquake as a Trigger for Implementing New Seismic Design Technologies in Japan. Lessons Learned Over Time. Oakland, Calif.: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute.

Hisako, Koura. 1999. Reconstruction Progress of White Zone in Ashiya: Necessity of Continuous Survey to Meet the Urban Issues in the Process of Recovery. Proceedings of the 6th Japan/US Workshop on Urban Earthquake Hazard Reduction, eds. Kazuyoshi Ohnishi, and Norio Maki, pp.291-295. Tokyo: Institute of Social Science Safety.
Abstract: After the earthquake disaster, the Japanese have carried out the continuous survey of the actual conditions and reconstruction progress in Ashiya because it was thought that each area had its own necessary countermeasures and plans based on the conditions. The survey shows that the characteristics of recovery conditions differ with districts depending on the history of land use, conditions of housing sites, and characteristics of the area. Three years after the Earthquake, the reconstruction stopped.  The reconstruction ratio to the damaged sites reached about 70-80%, but still the vacant sites scattered in the blocks.  In the course of the reconstruction, the plants and greenery in the sites were lost, the paved parking space increased and the number of multi-family housings increased. The local townscape has been changed because of the increase of the prefabricated housings. As Ashiya is characterized by the high quality of residential settings and city budget very much relies on the resident tax related to the income tax, it is critical issue to restore the quality of the residential environments.

Isumi, Masanori, Noriaki Nomura, and Takao Shibuya. 1985. Simulation of postearthquake restoration for lifeline systems. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 3, no. 1: 87-105.
Abstract: To have a national methodology for pre-earthquake planning, a model for predicting the post-earthquake behavior of city lifeline systems was developed. The authors discuss three factors in the model: structural damage, functional damage, and the restoration process after the earthquake. The restoration process is basically described by a differential equation applicable to a service area represented by a census mesh, and is applied to the lifelines (i.e., supply systems of gas, electric power, and water) of Sendai city in Japan. The model, in addition, indicates the lifelines network properties, and serviceability indices are defined in order to assess the functional damage of each system. In the case of the 1978 earthquake, a computer simulation of the restoration process was carried out by using step by step calculations and the Monte Carlo method. The results, using indices as a function of time, the authors are in agreement with actual results, which that the model is capable of predicting the restoration process.

Kaji, Hideki.1995.UNCRD Discussion Paper No. 95-6. United Nations Centre for Regional Development, Nagoya, Japan.
Abstract: The city of Kobe was considered a region were few noticeable earthquakes had been observed, and thus was believed to be located in an earthquake-free zone.  The magnitude 7.2 quake of January 17, 1995 dispelled any such notion. While the quake inflicted 5,502 deaths and over 40,000 injuries, the toll could have been much higher had it struck some fifteen or more minutes later when many more commuters in all types of transportation would have been going to work. Similarly, damage caused by the 260 fires ignited by the quake would have been much worse had not the day been relatively calm with little or no wind blowing. This report presents a detailed account of the damage to Kobe and the region, together with some data on the success of the early recovery efforts.  Examples of the information presented include: damage suffered by the Kobe Steel Corporation amounted to $13.1 billion; Mitsubishi Heavy Industries suffered a loss of $34 billion; Nissan Motor lost $15 billion to quake-inflicted damages.  In all, Japan's manufacturing sector absorbed damages over the $100 billion mark. Data also is presented for damage to the distribution industry (supermarkets, department stores) and to financial institutions.  Other areas examined include reconstruction costs, future mitigation planning, debris removal, and housing for displaced people.

Kaji, Hideki, and Ken'ishi Murakami. 1991. Estimation of the workers dismissed or laid off following the 2nd Kanto earthquake. UCLA International Conference on the Impact of Natural Disasters. Los Angeles, Calif.: UCLA.

Kawashima, Kazuhiko, and Takashi Kanoh. 1990. Evaluation of indirect economic effects caused by the 1983 Nihonkai-chubu, Japan, earthquake. Earthquake Spectra 90 no. 4: 739-756.
Abstract: The economic impacts of an earthquake are not limited to physical damage to buildings and other structures. Loss of production in industry and services, unemployment, increased public health and social expenditures, and other secondary "ripple" effects can greatly increase the total economic impact of an earthquake. In this paper, the authors present a method for calculating these indirect effects and then apply it to a quake that struck Japan's Akita prefecture. Areas taken into account include agriculture, fisheries, mining, manufacturing, construction, utilities, commerce, finance and insurance, transportation, and the service industry. Also considered is the positive economic impact generated by reconstruction activies. The study found that the decrease of products associated with the direct damage was larger than the direct damage by a factor of 2.5.

Kuwabara, Hideki, Toshiki Shioiri, Shin-Ichi Toyabe, Tsuyoshi Kawamura, Masataka Koizumi, Miki Ito-Sawamura, Kouhei Akazawa, and Toshiyuki Someya. 2008. Factors impacting on psychological distress and recovery after the 2004 Niigata-Chuetsu earthquake, Japan: Community-based study. Psychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences 62, no. 5: 503-7.
Abstract: This study was undertaken 5 months after the 2004 Niigata–Chuetsu earthquake in Japan to assess factors that impacted on psychological distress and its recovery. Three thousand and twenty-six adult victims who lived in temporary shelter and in seriously damaged areas were evaluated by questionnaire. The questionnaire queried subject profile, degree of house damage, health status, and psychological distress using a 5-point scale before, immediately and 5 months after the earthquake. Immediately after the earthquake, 59.3% of the subjects had psychological distress. At 5 months after the earthquake, however, this percentage decreased to 21.8%. The psychological distress immediately after the earthquake was significantly serious in victims who: (i) were female; (ii) felt stronger fear of the earthquake and the aftershocks; (iii) lived at home or office after the earthquake; and (iv) were injured due to the earthquake or suffered from sickness after the earthquake. In contrast, the factors impairing psychological recovery 5 months after the earthquake were as follows: (i) being with unfamiliar member(s) during the night after the earthquake; (ii) serious house damage; (iii) living in temporary shelter or at a relative's home after the earthquake; and (iv) physical illness after the earthquake. Despite differences between disasters, these results were consistent with those in some previous studies and may be useful for long-term mental care support.

Lee, George C., Thomas O’Rourke, Masanobu Shinozuka and Kathleen J. Tierney.1998. Developing Urban Reconstruction Strategies from Northridge and Kobe Earthquake Studies. Article No. 329. Newark, Del. University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center.

Muramami, Hitomi. 1999.  Alternative to Demolish or Repair Damaged Dwellings and Related Factors in the 1995 Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake. Proceedings of the 6th Japan/US Workshop on Urban Earthquake Hazard Reduction, eds. Kazuyoshi Ohnishi, and Norio Maki, pp. 363-74. Tokyo: Institute of Social Science Safety.
Abstract: In the 1995 Hanshin-Awaji earthquake, enormous numbers of buildings and dwellings were partially or fully destroyed. It is critically important for property owners either to repair and strengthen an old house, or to demolish and build a new one. This study aims to find factors affecting decision making along those lines. Factors discussed are damage evaluation systems, demolition policies, public mortgage loans, and consulting services. Disaster relief measures in future cases need to extend to technical information regarding dwelling recovery and also to assist in the repairing and strengthening of damaged property.

Nagata, Takashi, Stephanie Rosborogh, Michael J. VanRooyen, Shuichi Kozawa,
Takashi Ukai, and Shinichi Nakayama. 2006. Express railway disaster in Amagasaki: A review of urban disaster response capacity in Japan. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 21, no. 5: 345-52.
Abstract: Introduction: On the morning of 25 April 2005, a Japan Railway express train derailed in an urban area of Amagasaki, Japan. The crash was Japan’s worst rail disaster in 40 years. This study chronicles the rescue efforts and highlights the capacity of Japan’s urban disaster response. Methods: Public reports were gathered from the media, Internet, government, fire department, and railway company. Four key informants, who were close to the disaster response, were interviewed to corroborate public data and highlight challenges facing the response. Results: The crash left 107 passengers dead and 549 injured. First responders, most of whom were volunteers, were helpful in the rescue effort, and no lives were lost due to transport delays or faulty triage. Responders criticized an early decision to withdraw rescue efforts, a delay in heliport set-up, the inefficiency of the information and instruction center, and emphasized the need for training in confined space medicine. Communication and chain-of-command problems created confusion at the scene. Conclusions: The urban disaster response to the train crash in Amagasaki was rapid and effective. The Kobe Earthquake and other incidents sparked changes that improved disaster preparedness in Amagasaki. However, communication and cooperation among responders were hampered, as in previous disasters, by the lack of a structured command system. Application of an incident command system may improve disaster coordination in Japan.

Ohnishi, Kazuyoshi. 1999. A Study of the Role Played by Local Building Contractors and Carpenters Following the Great Hanshin-Awaji (Kobe) Earthquake. Proceedings of the 6th Japan/US Workshop on Urban Earthquake Hazard Reduction, eds. Kazuyoshi Ohnishi, and Norio Maki, 355-62Tokyo: Institute of Social Science Safety.
Abstract: Although local carpenters and building contractors played a significant role in rescue and reconstruction efforts following the Great Kobe Earthquake of 1995, for the most part their activities have not been studied or reported in any systematic fashion.  In the emergency phase immediately following the quake, many of these men played the role of rescue team leaders within their local communities. In the early repair and restoration phase, they helped with building inspections and repairs, and these activities by construction specialists made a significant contribution to rapid recovery and restoration.  In the longer-term reconstruction phase, their communities looked to them to supply sturdy, high quality buildings and housing stock. The purpose of this study was to bring to light the roles local carpenters and building contractors can play in regional disaster prevention and mitigation programs. To this end, a survey was done of the documentary literature on this subject and a questionnaire was distributed to carpenters and building contractors working in the areas most affected by the Great Kobe Earthquake. This paper contains the results obtained from the questionnaire, highlighting the role these individuals played in their communities following the disaster, and suggesting ways in which they can be expected to contribute to housing inspection and maintenance over the long term.

Pruess, Jane, Christopher Arnold, and Craig Comartin. 2001 Kobe Reconstruction: Community Planning, Design and Construction Practices. Seattle, Wash.: Urban Regional Research.
Abstract: This project focuses on reconstruction following the quake that struck Kobe, Japan, on January 17, 1995. The study incorporates urban planning, architecture, urban design, and engineering perspectives to compare Kobe recovery efforts with recent experiences in the U.S. Three basic levels of reconstruction are investigated: 1) replacement of individual buildings on a single site; 2) replacement of groups of buildings on the same site within the existing general street pattern (residential tracts); and 3) replanning and replacement of neighborhoods involving changes in street alignment and creation of new town complexes.

Sakakibara, H., H. Murakami, S. Esaki, D. Mori, and H. Nakata. 2008. Modeling households’ decisions on reconstruction of houses damaged by earthquakes: Japanese case study. Natural Hazards 44, no. 2: 293-303.
Abstract: In this study, households’ decisions on reconstruction of damaged houses were modeled, using questionnaire data in Japan. Characteristics of households’ decisions were investigated using parameter estimation results. The effects of subsidizing policy were evaluated as follows. First, subsidy for rebuilding may be effective for the households whose houses were heavily damaged. Second, there is a possibility that subsidy accelerated rebuilding of houses by the households having children. Third, subsidy for rebuilding may not be effective for elderly people’s households and households in depopulated areas.

Takeda, Joe, Keiko Tamura, and Shigeo Tatsuki. 2003. Life recovery of 1995 Kobe earthquake survivors in Nishinomiya City: A total-quality-management-based assessment of disadvantaged populations. Natural Hazards 29, no. 3: 565-83.
Abstract: The main objectives of this study were (1) to examine what has been recovered and what has not yet been recovered in Nishinomiya City five years after the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, and (2) to find current service needs for the earthquake survivors, especially for the disadvantaged populations. Disadvantaged populations are minorities in society, and their needs and opinions are often ignored and not reflected in the services or mitigation policy, despite the fact that they are the ones who are affected most by various hazards. At the same time, because of their unique characteristics and positions in society, their needs differ from the majority of the society. Six hundred eighty-six opinion cards were collected in nine grassroots workshop sessions with various disadvantaged groups in Nishinomiya City, such as the physically challenged, the visually impaired, the elderly living in public housing, junior and senior high school students, mothers with small children, and those who lost their own homes because of the earthquake. These opinion cards were sorted out and analyzed by using a TQM (Total Quality Management)-based assessment method. Since the TQM-based assessment method allows bottom-up integration of opinions from each individual, it helps identify unique needs of the disadvantaged groups and reflect their opinions in mitigation plan and policies. The main findings of this study include (1) the city redevelopment cannot be achieved without integrating the viewpoints of the disadvantaged; (2) the social support was a key resource for both mental health and community development; and (3) disaster experiences and adaptation produced civic mindedness among people in a community.

Tatano, Hirokazu, and Satoshi Tsuchiya. 2008. A framework for economic loss estimation due to seismic transportation network disruption: A spatial computable general equilibrium approach . Natural Hazards 44, no. 2: 253-65.
Abstract: This paper presents a framework for assessing the economic impact of disruption in transportation that can relate the physical damage to transportation networks to economic losses. A spatial computable general equilibrium (SCGE) model is formulated and then integrated with a transportation model that can estimate the traffic volumes of freight and passengers. Economic equilibrium under a disruption in the transportation network is computed subject to the condition that the adjustment of labor and capital inputs is restricted; the model reflects slow adjustment of these linked to the state of recovery. As a case study, the model reviews the large Niigata-Chuetsu earthquake of 2004. Considering the damage to the transportation infrastructure, the model indicates the extent of the economic losses arising from the earthquake distributed over regions as a consequence of the intra- and interregional trade in a regional economy. The results show that 20% of the indirect losses occur in the Niigata region directly affected by the earthquake, whereas 40% of the total losses are experienced in the Kanto region and non-negligible losses reach rather remote zones of the country such as Okinawa.

Tatsuki, Shigeo, and Haruo Hayashi. 2000. Family system adjustment and adaptive reconstruction of social reality among the 1995 earthquake survivors. International Journal of Japanese Sociology 9, no. 1: 81-110.
Abstract: The 1995 Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake resulted in immense imbalances among and within natural ecosystems, the built environment, and human systems. The current study examined the relationship among familial adjustment, adaptive construction of social reality, and recovery of built environment. A random sample mail survey was conducted on 3,300 earthquake victims and 993 questionnaires were returned.  The survey questionnaire included the following four scales that measured the family system adjustment on family cohesion and adaptability, the adaptive construction of new reality as evidence by citizenship orientations, the current level of physical and psychological stress, and a subjective evaluation of life recovery. The results were as follows: (1) Those families that exhibited high cohesion and a clear leadership structure in the emergency period were more functional than others. (2) Those families that reported a balanced level of cohesion and adaptability during the recovery period were the most factional in promoting present individual recovery and in alleviating current stress. (3) The rise of civic-mindedness was observed among those who survived the disaster. (4) Those with high civic-mindedness tend to be better recovered with less current physical and psychological stress. This paper presented a ecological model that described the relationships among five components: (1) the earthquake hazard, (2) built environment conditions such as disruption of the lifeline and its recovery, (3) opportunity costs for engaging in exchanges with either basic-trust-based ties or social-trust-based ties, (4) the optimal family system adjustment to corresponding exchange relations, and (5) adaptive construction of new social reality.

Toyoda, Toshihisa. 1999. Economic Damages and Recovery from the Hanshin Earthquake: Some Characteristics of a Great Urban Disaster. Proceedings of the 6th Japan/US Workshop on Urban Earthquake Hazard Reduction, eds.

Kazuyoshi Ohnishi, and Norio Maki, 496-99Tokyo: Institute of Social Science Safety.
Abstract: The authors first summarize the notion of economic damages using two dimensions economic units and stock and flow categories. They then proceed to consider the stock and flow damages on the household unit (sector) and the industrial unit (sector), respectively. An estimation of both the stock and flow damages by the efficient use of micro surveys is also reported. The highlight of this paper shows: a) that the flow loss during the first year following the disaster exceeds the direct stock loss in the industrial sector, and b) the total stock loss in the whole sector exceeds the officially announced amount by about 3.4 trillion yen. Before a complete recovery was attained, the economic activities in the affected area became more severe because of the worldwide recession.

Toyota Motor Corporation, ed. 1995. The Wheel Extended--Special Issue: "Earthquakes and Urban Transport," Part One: Report on the Southern Hyogo Earthquake. Vol. PR-E-9503. Tokyo: Toyota Motor Corporation, International Public Affairs Division.
Abstract: Due to the Japanese archipelago's susceptibility to very strong earthquakes, seismic construction standards over the past few decades have been made stricter after every damaging quake. Because the Southern Hyogo (Kobe) earthquake occurred in an area where there had been relatively few earthquakes, and because part of its focal region was only about 20km beneath the city, the resulting damage was much greater than could possibly have been expected. The first of four issues of this trade journal focuses on the dynamics of the quake and the extent of damage, with special attention paid to transportation infrastructure. Geological and seismological aspects of the quake are presented and a damage overview is provided for transportation lifelines, such as highways, port facilities. General damage statistics also are given, as well as a chronology of emergency recovery and reconstruction activities. Numerous four-color diagrams and graphs aid in presenting the information.

United Nations Centre for Regional Development. 1995. A Call to Arms: Report of the 17 January 1995 Great Hanshin Earthquake. United Nations Centre for Regional Development. Discussion Paper No. 95-2. Nagoya, Japan: United Nations Centre for Regional Development.
Abstract: This reconnaissance report examines the great Kobe earthquake, including seismological background, emergency response, recovery, and the impact of the quake on Japan's economy. It is noted that during 1,500 years of recorded history, Kobe had not once been struck by an earthquake, lending credibility to the notion that the city was safe from seismic activity. Furthermore, it is asserted that the Kobe City Government cannot be held negligent for failure to plan for an earthquake which may occur only once every 1,000 to 2,000 years. Thus, the concept of acceptable risk needs to be incorporated in planning limitations for regions where historical seismicity studies are either nonexistent or are just being undertaken.

United Nations Dept. of Humanitarian Affairs. 1995. Great Hanshin-Awaji (Kobe) Earthquake in Japan, 17 January 1995: The Earthquake On-Site Relief and International Response, DHA/95/141. Geneva: United Nations Dept. of Humanitarian Affairs.
Abstract: Immediately following the Kobe earthquake, the Relief Coordination Branch of DHA began monitoring response efforts and issuing situation reports to provide accurate information to the international community. DHA sent a fact-finding mission to Japan to assess the international response to this catastrophe following the initial response, when reconstruction had begun. This document contains the report of the mission. It includes sections on the quake itself and the characteristics of the Hanshin-Awaji area; damage; response during the first four hours following the quake; actions during the next 14 hours; "bottlenecks" that inhibited response, such as traffic jams and lack of water; response the first and second days after the quake; and the international response. The first ten DHA information reports are reprinted as an annex.  Some of the many findings: some NGOs sent perishable foods which spoiled before roads could be cleared for delivery; used clothing sent by NGOs had to be sorted and repacked by volunteers, which used up a great deal of storage space and manpower; medium-size double-wall tents could be used, but not large-scale tents; and some sizes of donated diapers did not fit the average Japanese baby.

Willis, David B. 1998. Voices from Kobe: The Great Hanshin Earthquake "on the ground". The ASPEP Journal: 99-105.

Yamada, Shinji, Kenneth A. Travers, Dennis Kuzak, Rick Clinton, Bob Healy, Mahmoud Khater, and Kenneth W. Campbell. 2008. Earthquake Property and Business Continuity Risk Affecting Japanese Industries. Asian Catastrophe Insurance. Pp. 109-36. eds. Charles Scawthorn, and Kiyoshi Kobayashi,. London: Haymarket House.