Quick Response Report #104

DISSOCIATIVE AND POSTTRAUMATIC REACTIONS TO THE NORTHERN CALIFORNIA FLOODING OF 1997

Lynn C. Waelde, Cheryl Koopman, and David Spiegel

1998

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This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. CMS-9632458. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

DISSOCIATIVE AND POSTTRAUMATIC REACTIONS TO THE NORTHERN CALIFORNIA FLOODING OF 1997

The Central Valley of northern California was the site of disastrous flooding during the early part of 1997. Reports of the flooding confirm that this disaster was exceptionally widespread, severe, and protracted because of repeated flooding and threats of reflooding. The State of California Flood Center estimated that property damages in the Central Valley totaled over $1.6 billion. During the flooding, there were ten deaths, more than 100,000 people evacuated, and more than 150,000 acres flooded. More than ten thousand people sustained damage to their homes. In addition, numerous sites reflooded, requiring repeated evacuations in some areas. Two areas of the state are among the most devastated and are located in rural/agricultural areas: Yuba/Sutter Counties, including the towns of Yuba City, Marysville, Arboga and Olivehurst, and Stanislaus/San Joaquin Counties, including Modesto and Stockton.

This study examined demographic characteristics of the sample, exposure to the flooding, types of coping used during the flooding, and symptoms of Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in these two Central Valley counties from one to four months following the floods. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1994), ASD includes dissociative and posttraumatic symptoms and occurs during the first four weeks after a traumatic stressor. The diagnosis of PTSD includes symptoms of reexperiencing the traumatic event (such as in nightmares), avoidance of reminders of the event, and hyperarousal which last more than 30 days after a traumatic stressor (APA, 1997). It was hypothesized that greater amounts of exposure to the flooding would be associated with greater severity of both shorter term (ASD) and longer term (PTSD) stress symptoms.

METHOD

Procedure:

Participants:

Instruments:

Demographic characteristics:

Contact with the floods:

Coping during the flooding:

Acute stress reactions in the immediate aftermath of the flood:

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms:

RESULTS

Contact with the flood

Relationships of Flood Exposure to Acute Stress and PTSD Symptoms

Coping during the Flood

DISCUSSION

A substantial proportion of participants were severely exposed to stress and losses associated with the flooding. A sizable proportion of the participants were evacuated and had to move temporarily after the flood. The widespread property loss in this area was also experienced in the study sample: 15% reported loss of their homes and 24% reported other property loss. In addition to actual home and property losses, a significant proportion of the sample was exposed to the stress of fearing for their property or lives during this catastrophic flooding. Following the flood, a majority of participants were exposed to the losses and injuries experienced by others.

Given the severity of exposure to stress and loss, it is unsurprising that some study participants also evidenced symptoms of two stress disorders: acute stress and posttraumatic stress disorder. The significant relationships between flood exposure and symptoms of both of these disorders demonstrated that flood exposure is associated with both shorter term and longer term stress reactions. It is important to note that this study examined symptoms of stress disorders rather than the actual diagnosis of disorders. Thus, even though greater flood exposure was associated with elevated levels of stress symptoms, participants did not necessarily qualify for the formal diagnosis of a mental disorder.

An additional focus of this study concerned the types of coping used during the flood. Passive coping activities were the most commonly reported, such as listening to reports of the flood on the television or radio, talking to others about the flood, and worrying. Active coping activities reported by a majority of the participants included helping others, packing belongings, making plans for evacuation, and evacuating. Both of these types of coping were reported by a majority of the sample and appear to reflect functional coping methods, in the sense that these coping activities may tend to enhance the safety of victims during a flood.

In addition, an important percentage of the sample reported coping activities that appear to be less functional in the sense that these coping activities may potentially exposure a flood victim to greater danger. Dangerous coping included trying to get a closer look at the flood as it was occurring, which was an act reported by 27% of the sample. Passive/avoidant coping may also be less effective in reducing one's exposure to the danger of flooding. These activities, such as staring at the rain or flood water, doing work unrelated to the flood, sleeping, eating to take one's mind off the flood, using alcohol, drugs or cigarettes to relax, recreational activities, and getting distracted while evacuating, were reported by a sizable minority of study participants.

In conclusion, both shorter term and longer term stress reactions were found in this sample of persons exposed to flooding. In addition, participants reported the use of several types of coping, including both functional and more dangerous coping activities. These findings highlight the importance of both immediate and longer term mental health interventions with flood victims. In addition, public education efforts might emphasize teaching ways of coping with flooding that would enhance safety, rather than endanger it, in the face of catastrophic flooding.

References

Carde¤a, E., Classen, C., & Spiegel, D. (1991). Acute Stress Reaction Questionnaire. Unpublished scale, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford Medical School.

Koopman, C., Classen, C., & Spiegel, D. (1996). Dissociative responses in the immediate aftermath of the Oakland/Berkeley firestorm. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 521-540.

Weathers, F. W., Huska, J. A. & Keane, T. M. (1991). The PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C). (Scale available from the first author at the National Center for PTSD, Boston VA Medical Center, 150 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02130)

Acknowledgments

Correspondence concerning this report should be directed to: Lynn C. Waelde, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Pacific Graduate School of Psychology, 935 East Meadow Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94303, or email address l.waelde@pgsp.edu.

Table 1

  
____________________________________________________________________
  
Variable       Mean     Std Dev     Minimum     Maximum       n
____________________________________________________________________
  
Age           42.98      12.56        18           73        131
  
Education     14.80       2.24         8           21        127
  
  
____________________________________________________________________  
  
Variable                 Frequency                 Valid Percent
____________________________________________________________________  
  
Gender
Male                        40                         30.8
Female                      90                         69.2
  
Marital Status
Single                      26                         19.8
Married                     75                         57.3
Separated                    2                          1.5
Divorced                    25                         19.1
Widowed                      3                          2.3
  
Employment Status
Not Employed                25                         19.1
Part Time                   23                         17.6
Full Time                   83                         63.4 
  
Household Income
less than $10,000           11                          8.9
$10,000 to 19,000           14                         11.3
$20,000 to 39,000           37                         29.8
$40,000 to 59,000           27                         21.8
$60,000 to 79,000           15                         12.1
$80,000 to 99,000            6                          4.8
over $100,000               14                         11.3
  
Ethnic Background
Caucasian                  100                         76.3
Latino/a or Chicano/a       11                          8.4
Mixed                       12                          9.2
Asian/Asian-American         3                          2.3
Native American              3                          2.3
African American             2                          1.5
  
Religious Affiliation
Christian (non-Catholic)    60                         46.9
Catholic                    39                         30.5
Other                        4                          3.1
None                        25                         19.5
  

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July 6, 1998