IRCD Researchers Meeting Abstracts
Terri Adams, Howard University
Larry Stewart, University of the District of Columbia
Caught Between Roles in the Midst of Disaster
In a human-caused or natural disaster, police, fire, and emergency medical personnel are essential front-line first responders. The ability of first responder agencies to provide adequate services is contingent upon critical response personnel working and functioning in an efficient manner. Currently, it is assumed that first responders will continue to work in the event of a disaster, even if they are personally impacted by the disaster to which they are expected to respond. This study examines role conflict among police officers that served as first responders during a natural disaster.
Kevin Ash, University of South Carolina
Susan Cutter, University of South Carolina
Chris Emrich, University of South Carolina
Geographic Variability of the Relative Economic Impacts of Natural Hazards in the United States
Direct stock losses associated with hazards are increasing in the United States. A common measure of the severity of damaging events is the absolute loss in dollars. While such a measure gives an idea of the economic magnitude of an event or series of events, it does not take into account place-specific economic capacities. Similarly, long-term recovery efforts after a disaster event can be hampered by the occurrence of subsequent hazard events in the same geographic area. Thus, our two research questions explore (1) where in the United States have cumulative direct hazard losses been highest relative to gross domestic product, and (2) where in the United States has variability of high loss-to-gross domestic product (GDP) ratios been temporally consistent and where it has been more sporadic?
To account for cumulative hazard losses and to contextualize these losses within a place's economic capacity to cope, we used annual county level losses normalized by the estimated county GDP. The hazard loss data from 1977-2008 were culled from the Spatial Hazard Events and Losses Database for the United States. County GDP was estimated by the product of state-level GDP data and each county's respective proportion of the total number of employees in the state. The results suggest that rural counties annually experience greater direct hazard losses relative to local GDP than urban counties. High impact rural counties are concentrated across the High Plains, Iowa, and the Gulf Coast. The high impact years for the Gulf Coast are more temporally variable or sporadic, whereas across Iowa and the High Plains the high impact years occur more consistently. Since this relative measure can demonstrate both magnitude and temporal variability of direct hazard losses, it has potential as an outcome measure of economic resilience.
Eric Best, University of Delaware
Mobile Phone Carrier Location Data Tracking—A Single User's Journey
In April 2011, an error allowed motivated iPhone users to view their location data being tracked by the device maker, Apple, and cell phone service carrier, AT&T. As an iPhone user and interested researcher, the author performed a detailed analysis of the data tracked on his device over a year-long measurement period.
After analyzing the vast amount of personal data being collected by Apple and AT&T, it became clear that these results should be shared with the academic community. There are significant implications of tracking individuals, and huge benefits to emergency responders and disaster science of tracking aggregate data (e.g. knowing where individuals are located in a disaster situation). Analysis of the author's personal cell phone data revealed the potential benefits, but also the magnitude of the possible privacy violations. Regardless of personal opinions, this data is being tracked, and the public can now be made aware of how much information is available.
This presentation highlights how this data was collected and analyzed, and more importantly, what we can learn from it via an extensive visualization of the output. This data has enormous implications for the field of disaster science, and it is important to make participants in the field aware of future possibilities using data of this type.
Rochelle Brittingham, University of Delaware
Tricia Wachtendorf, University of Delaware
Disaster and Disability: Preliminary Findings Following the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Implications for the United States
The focus of this work is on the devastating earthquake, tsunami, and subsequent technological threats that impacted the Tohoku region of Japan in March 2011. This presentation examines the extent to which structural inequalities led to disparate sheltering strategies for those with functional and development impairments (FDI) compared to the general population, and to what consequence. As basic scientific research develops ways to improve structures, infrastructure, and organizational mechanisms to enhance disaster safety, we must determine if and how those scientific advances actually ensure safety for all, or if those advances (and corresponding assumptions) instead lead to structured inequality in the aftermath of disasters.
Media articles and situation reports were collected after the disaster and examined for any discussion (or lack thereof) of function and developmental impairments.
A week-long field investigation, organized by Japan's Institute of Social Safety Science, is planned for June 2011. Presentations will be made by key officials involved in the response as well as with disaster survivors. Site visits to key response locations and areas impacted by the disaster will occur. The presentation includes preliminary findings and considersa (1) the extent to which FDI issues were considered in the sheltering of disaster survivors; and (2) the implications for how the United States considers the needs of those who have functional or developmental impairments, particularly in disaster planning.
Pamela McCauley Bush, University of Central Florida
Mohammad Jeelani, University of Central Florida
Susan Gaines, University of Central Florida
Lewelin Curling, College of the Bahamas
Philip Armbrister, College of the Bahamas
Arturo Watlingtno, University of Central Florida
Renaldo Major, College of the Bahamas
Lorneska Rolle, College of the Bahamas
Sarah Cohen, University of Central Florida
A Human-Centered Methodology for the Identification of Communication Needs and the Assessment of Hand-held Communication Devices Used to Support Communication Flow in High Consequence Emergency Management
Communication has been identified as a critical component in the outcome of emergency response. Post-mortems of "what went wrong" in disaster responses often point toward breakdown in communication between first responders, those directing rescue efforts, and the general population, as one of the primary impediments to rendering timely aid and communicating safety and weather information. Before making improvements in regard to communication flow in emergency management, it is critical to first identify the needs of the users.
In this study, knowledge acquisition techniques including text analysis, interview analysis, and surveys on Bahamian emergency management officials and civilians were used to develop a baseline for current emergency management operations and device use in the Bahamas, as well as to identify the communication needs during emergencies. Device selection factors were identified based upon equipment needs and literature review. AHP analysis was used to determine the weighted priority of each selection factor, including portability, usability, and battery life, resulting in a mathematical model for the selection of hand-held communication devices based upon human factors principles.
The knowledge acquisition and data collection techniques used revealed the existence and extent of human-factor issues and device deficiencies, thus achieving the research goals that specific human-factor issues associated with hand-held communication devices in emergency management existed and could be identified and qualified or quantified. The data collection techniques accomplished the research goal to establish a baseline for the current use of hand-held communication devices in the Bahamas.
The development and validation of the human-centered methodology for assessing hand-held communication devices in the context of high consequence emergencies achieved the research goal that a mathematical model can be developed to holistically represent human-factor issues associated with the use of hand-held communication devices in emergency management.
Mark Casteel, Pennsylvania State University
Joe Downing, Pennsylvania State University
How Individuals Process Weather Warning Related Messages (Text, or Text with Graphics) on a Mobile Phone
During a severe weather event, one of the National Weather Service's objectives is to issue warnings. Traditionally, these warnings were broadcast on local TV or radio stations. Today, many users are opting to have commercial weather services send the warnings directly to their mobile phones and these messages can now include multimedia content.
In light of these advances, the Federal Communications Commission, in collaboration with other agencies, began developing the Commercial Mobile Alert Service. CMAS standards allow officials to send text-based emergency messages to wireless providers, who will then deliver those messages to their subscribers' phones. The warnings will be geographically targeted and sent to only those users whose phones are in the warning area. Notably, however, CMAS standards do not allow the inclusion of multimedia content for fear of overburdening the system.
The decision not to include multimedia content in the messages seems to go against people's first inclination to seek additional information. It is possible, however, that multimedia information might actually impair an individual's ability to process the message. For instance, out-of-towners traveling through the warning area might find themselves overwhelmed.
The objective of the current study is to investigate what, if any, advantages a multimedia weather message has over a text-only message. To address this question, we had participants read text or text plus multimedia warning messages for geographical areas unfamiliar to them. The multimedia messages included a thumbnail of a radar image that could be maximized. Participants then answered questions about the weather event. One question asked if a particular town was inside the warning area, and participants' responses were timed. The other questions assessed the participants' perceived severity, certainty, and urgency of the warnings.
We will report the results of our study and their implications for the upcoming CMAS standards.
John A. Cross, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh
Disaster Devastation, Recovery, or Relocation
In communities that have suffered the destruction of the majority of their structures, several questions face citizens, business and political leaders, and state and regional planners. Should they rebuild, and if so, should they rebuild on the same site or relocate and reconstruct the community on a less risky site? For some, another question should also be asked: Should the residents relocate to other communities? These questions about relocation rather than reconstruction form the focus of this paper, which looks at demographic changes that have resulted from devastating disasters in many rural communities.
Many communities suffer sharp drops in population following major disasters, as shown by Gulf Coast settlements devastated by hurricanes and in Great Plains communities struck by tornadoes or floods. Seeking explanations of what types of communities suffer the largest proportional losses of their population, this paper looks at a sample of American communities that suffered destruction of the majority of their dwellings during the past three decades. Factors considered were the type of hazard event, the socioeconomic characteristics of the devastated community, the pre-event size of the community, and the long-term population trends before the event, and the proximity of the community to other similar sized or larger cities.
This exploratory paper focuses mostly on rural communities that are not contiguous suburbs of larger cities to determine what factors appear most important in determining whether residents rebuild or leave their community following a disaster that destroys most of the community.
Jeffrey Czajkowski, University of Pennsylvania
Howard Kunreuther, University of Pennsylvania
Erwann Michel-Kerjan, University of Pennsylvania
Flood Risk, Mitigation, and Insurance in Texas
One of the many hurdles to privatizing flood insurance when the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) was established in 1968 was the inability of insurers to quantify the financial risk of insuring properties with large catastrophic loss potential from flooding. The development of flood risk models in recent years has refined insurers' ability to quantify this financial impact.
Catastrophe models enable private insurers to set premiums for flood insurance that reflect risk if this coverage were offered by the private market. This paper specifies risk-based flood insurance premiums using a catastrophe model developed by CoreLogic for single-family residential structures with high exposure to flooding damage in three Texas counties. It uses data on 1.5 million individual single-family residential parcels.
One rationale for privatizing the NFIP is to encourage cost-effective mitigation measures by homeowners. We estimate the potential reduction in risk-based premiums from the implementation of mitigation efforts. Finally, we undertake cost-benefit analyses of these efforts to determine how economically efficient flood mitigation measures may be, accounting for different discount rates and time horizons.
Based on these analyses, we examine how well a flood insurance program would perform with premiums reflecting risk compared to the current NFIP program. For such a program to be politically feasible, grants in the form of insurance stamps must be provided to those requiring special treatment, such as low-income residents currently residing in flood-prone areas. The paper concludes by suggesting future research on the role of insurance to encourage residents in hazard-prone areas to adopt cost-effective mitigation measures.
Omar El-Anwar, University of Washington
Lei Chen, University of Washington
Computing a Displacement Distance Equivalent to Meet Displaced Families Needs
Temporary housing is a critical period for the social, economic, and psychological recovery of displaced families following natural disasters. Among the important factors affecting the pace and success of this recovery is the temporary housing location, because it defines the displacement distance between families and their essential needs. Current temporary housing practices are incapable of identifying and responding to the specific needs of displaced families, such as proximity to jobs, schools, social support networks, pre-disaster location, healthcare and eldercare facilities, and other essential services.
This paper develops a novel methodology to capture the specific proximity needs and preferences of displaced families. It proposes "displacement distance equivalent" as an objective metric to evaluate the performance of temporary housing locations in meeting the specific needs of each displaced family.
The paper also describes the development of an optimization model capable of optimizing temporary housing assignments. The model utilizes integer programming in order to minimize total displacement distance equivalent while meeting recovery budget constraints. An application example demonstrates the capabilities of the developed model and highlight areas of further research. The proposed model should prove useful to decision makers in selecting the optimal locations for the construction of new temporary housing projects as well as selecting lease/rental units.
N. Emel Ganapati, Florida International University
Shaoming Cheng, Florida International University
Sukumar Ganapati, Florida International University
Factors Enabling Housing Recovery Following Hurricane Katrina
Despite a growing literature on post-disaster housing recovery, our understanding of rural recovery remains limited. Existing literature mainly focuses on urban areas, with little attention paid to the rural housing recovery. The urban bias is especially evident in post-Katrina literature, most of which is devoted to the city of New Orleans. We address this gap in the literature by focusing on the factors influencing housing recovery in rural counties affected by Hurricane Katrina. The study is significant, not only because nearly two-thirds of counties affected by Hurricane Katrina were indeed rural counties, but also because policy makers in rural areas have little guidance on how they could enable recovery in their communities.
To study housing recovery, we first use a quasi-experimental research design, in which we identify a matched county for each affected rural county and establish statistically equivalent counterfactual scenarios for measuring housing recovery progress. Second, we conduct two-sample one-tail t-tests to assess the counterfactual recovery of affected rural counties. Third, we conduct multivariate panel analysis to identify factors that affect housing recovery. These factors include population characteristics, housing characteristics, employment and income, human and social capital, rural characteristics, and disaster damages. We examine the effect of each of these factors on the following housing recovery indicators: housing unit estimates, valuation of new private housing units, and new private housing units authorized by building permits.
Our main findings include (1) overall, rural counties affected by Hurricane Katrina exhibit recovery above counterfactual levels in most housing indicators—net change of housing units, valuation of new permits, and new permits (single-family, multi-family, and total); (2) migration and selected housing characteristics mostly have significant positive effects while elderly and Hispanic populations mostly have significant negative effects on post-disaster housing recovery in rural areas.
N. Emel Ganapati, Florida International University
Meredith Newman, Florida International University
Christa Remington, Florida International University
Disaster Response and Recovery Workers: Centrality of Communicative, Leadership and Emotional Skills in Their Lives
Emotional labor refers broadly to work that requires a worker to regulate his or her experienced emotions and to visually display professionally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work. Although demand for emotional labor is at its highest in times of disasters, there is a lack of studies on emotional labor involved with disaster response and recovery workers. To address the abovementioned gap in the literature, we study the following: What kind of professional skills, specifically emotional management skills, do early response and recovery workers find necessary to deal with disaster victims and other actors on the ground? How can disaster response and recovery workers be better equipped with such skills?
Our study has implications for training of disaster professionals, contributing to the success of response and recovery programs on the ground. Our findings are mainly based on in-depth interviews conducted with 40 response and recovery workers involved in the Haitian earthquake, including representatives of international aid agencies based in Haiti, as well as search and rescue teams deployed after the earthquake. The interviews were transcribed word-for-word and analyzed using NVivo. Besides the interviews, we conducted participant observation and reviewed secondary sources.
Our findings indicate the centrality of communication skills, leadership skills, and emotional skills in the lives of disaster response and recovery workers in addition to the job-specific professional qualifications. Communication skills include the ability to listen actively and to show patience, respect, sincerity, honesty, and compassion, as well as language skills. Leadership skills include problem solving, diplomatic, and conflict resolution, as well as adaptability and an ability to maintain composure. Emotional skills include the ability to suppress negative emotions—such as anger, anxiety, powerlessness, sadness, or stress—while trying to visually display positive emotions such as sympathy and calmness.
Yue Ge, Texas A&M University
Michael K. Lindell, Texas A&M University
Do Better Land Use Tools Result in Less Natural Hazard Damage? An Examination of Planners' Perceptions
A substantial amount of literature discusses land use tools as they are applied in growth management or development management, environmental land use planning, emergency management, and ecosystem management. Planning researchers split the toolkit into eight subgroups—development regulations, building standards, property acquisition, incentive tools, information dissemination, critical and public facilities policies, financial tools, and private-sector initiatives. The majority of the pertinent planning studies focus on the decision-making processes in plans rather than planner perceptions of how they perceive the efficacy of these tools on natural hazard damage reduction.
To address this void in the literature, the present study explores planners' perceptions of land use tools in the U.S. Pacific states—Hawaii, Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California—which have used a variety of land use tools to sustain the natural environment and build coastal resilience. Two basic questions were proposed: (1) do better land use tools result in less land exposure to natural hazards; and (2) do better land use tools result in less damage from natural hazards. A web-based questionnaire survey was conducted with urban planners in all the counties or boroughs in the five states. Three perceived attributes of land use tools were examined in the survey—effectiveness, cost, and implementation barriers. Land percentage of five types of hazard prone areas and damage in recent decade from four types of natural hazard were also rated by planners. After examining the interrelationships among planners' perceptions of the above variables, it showed that in general better land use tools indeed led to less natural hazard exposure and less natural hazard damage in these Pacific states. The result helps better understand both the local practices of different land use tools and the role of planners in making plans for natural hazard mitigation.
Dana M. Greene, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill
When the Media Frames Disasters as Apocalyptic Events: The Nature of African American Community Resiliency in New Orleans, Louisiana, in the Post-Hurricane Katrina Era
The notion that the world is coming to an end is not a new phenomenon. It has been prophesied by religious figures, in literature, and by the mainstream media. This paper examines the role of the news media in constructing Hurricane Katrina as an apocalyptic event.
The city of New Orleans experienced multiple traumas on August 29, 2005. The primary trauma was the onslaught of hurricane winds and the flooding that decimated the city. The bowl lying below sea level was wiped out and completely disabled by the flush of the levee. Human lives and homes were lost. Extreme environmental contamination occurred. Electricity and all forms of communication were destroyed.
Essentially, within a matter of hours, Hurricane Katrina transformed it from a once vibrant city known for Mardi Gras, the French Quarter, and delicious beignets into a veritable Atlantis. Throughout this process, the news media portrayed the effects of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans as though the end of the world had come. This paper takes issue, therefore, with the orienting question of how the media is used to inform the larger society—especially during times of significant natural or technological disasters.
Alex Greer, University of Delaware
Earthquake Preparedness and Response: A Comparison of the United States and Japan
Earthquakes often occur with little to no warning. They can cause an enormous amount of destruction and death. Countries with means have developed complex emergency management systems to address this constant threat. The United States and Japan were chosen for comparison because they both share a similar amount of risk and have experienced large earthquakes in the last 20 years.
These two countries approach this problem in drastically different ways. The United States uses a bottom-up approach, giving a large amount of freedom to the local government to address this risk. The Japanese system spreads this responsibility out more through a directive approach, with the central government taking care of mitigation and parts of recovery, leaving the rest to be sorted out by the prefectures and local governments.
This paper focuses on the way in which these two countries approach preparedness and recovery. Analysis of these two methods will lead to understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of each system and can help develop future approaches.
Ziqiang Han, University of Delaware
Joanne M. Nigg, University of Delaware
The Influence of Disaster Experience and Risk Perception on Business Disaster Preparedness: An Empirical Study from the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake
There is a long tradition of organizational research in the field of disaster studies. The effects of disaster experience and risk perception on business disaster preparedness, however, have not been explored much.
In 1997, eight years after the Loma Prieta earthquake, the Disaster Research Center conducted a systematic, larger-scale mail questionnaire survey in Santa Cruz County, California, which was hard-hit by the 1989 earthquake. A total of 933 completed surveys were returned and coded for analysis, yielding a response rate of 33.6 percent. The results showed that the disaster experience has a significant impact on disaster preparedness activities. The degree of lifeline loss can be a reasonable indicator. Risk perceptions of decision makers in companies do have a positive effect on disaster preparedness activities. This result is statistically significant. Other control variables, such as the size of business organizations, are good predictors of disaster preparedness activities. Larger firms are more likely to engage in disaster preparedness compared with their smaller counterparts, a finding consistent with most of studies.
Companies in the finance, insurance, and real estate sectors are more likely to prepare for disasters compared with wholesale and retail trade firms. This may be because of the varied regulation policy in different sectors. One interesting finding is that the better a company's financial condition, the less it will engage in disaster preparedness activities. This could be because the good financial conditions make them feel optimistic for the future, so they prefer the risk propensity.
Ziqiang Han, University of Delaware
Xiaojiang Hu, Beijing Normal University
Joanne M. Nigg, University of Delaware
How Disaster Relief Affects the Local Government Trust in Rural China: A Study After the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake
Political trust, which can lead to cooperation, is very important in emergency and disaster management. The impact of disaster events on political trust is very complex.
On May 12, 2008, the destructive Wenchuan earthquake in southwest China killed thousands of people and caused billions of dollars worth of property damage. The Chinese government's swift response was appraised, but the local government trust was not explored. Through the authors' fieldwork after the earthquake in one of the hardest hit areas, trust in local governments after disaster relief was analyzed.
The political trust varied in different levels of government in China. People trust the central government more than the local government. After the earthquake, there was a polarization trend in local political trust. The few cases of role abandonment had a very bad effect on local political trust. Pre-disaster distrust, the impolite manners of local officials, and the gap between public expectation and the local government capacity also impaired local political trust. An easily operated and widely covered disaster assistance model is good for political trust after extreme tragedies. Implementing policies effectively and equally at the local level and the intergovernmental interchanges are challenges for all levels of government.
Thus, role abandonment, expectation management, equality, and intergovernmental cooperation should be heeded in emergency management. An easily operated and widely covered disaster assistance policy will be good for political trust after catastrophic events.
Paul Hewett, Argonne National Laboratory
Bill Metz, Argonne National Laboratory
Lauren Barsky, Argonne National Laboratory
Conducting and Maintaining Registries: Analysis of the Alabama Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program (CSEEP) Registry of People with Disabilities or Access and Functional Needs
Recent court cases have reinforced the need for including the disabled in emergency preparedness plans, to notify and evacuate the disabled, and to provide them with transportation and shelter during a disaster. To do this, state and local emergency managers must first identify and locate people with disabilities or functional needs that may need assistance during or immediately after disasters or mass emergencies. Many planning guides, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency's Comprehensive Preparedness Guide 301, Interim Emergency Management Planning Guide for Special Needs Populations, recommend that emergency managers use registries to aid in identifying and locating their community's special needs populations. However, the use of registries to identify special needs populations appears to be inconsistent at best.
In 1999, the communities surrounding a U.S. Army chemical weapons storage location in Alabama established one such special needs registry. As part of a research effort with the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Argonne National Laboratory is conducting a study into how the Alabama Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program administered and maintained this registry over an extended period of time.
Using data collected from surveys and questionnaires over a 10 years, as well as a series of qualitative research interviews with key personnel involved in creating and maintaining the registry, this study explores the following research questions: what processes for establishing and maintaining the registry were effective; how have changes in the registration process affected registry participation, and; how has the Alabama CSEPP community used registry information to plan its actions regarding special needs populations across all emergency phases (preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation). Implications and findings from this study can be used to assist state government and emergency management agencies in identifying and assisting special needs populations in the case of an extreme event.
Rahmawati Husein, Texas A&M University
Walter Gillis Peacock, Texas A&M University
Assessing Coastal Hazard Mitigation Capacities and Commitment at the Local Level in Texas
There is growing literature on the role that land use planning and development regulations can play toward hazard mitigation. But little empirical research has examined how the local capacity and commitment influence the adoption of land use and development regulations to mitigate hazards in coastal areas. This study investigates policy and practices of local jurisdictions along the Texas coast to mitigate hazards. Specifically, it examines the adoption and implementation of development regulations, building standards, and mitigation policies at the local level. In addition, the study examines the influence of capacity and commitment for the adoption of these hazard mitigation strategies.
The paper provides an overall assessment of the types of land use and development regulations and policies implemented by local jurisdictions based on surveys of leading planner, city directors, and county judge across Texas coastal area. A total of 121 local jurisdictions participated in the survey, including 97 cities and 23 counties.
Statistical models are developed to assess the influence of local capacity and commitment on the adoption and extensiveness of using various forms of land use regulations, hazard mitigation programs, and hazard related building standards. Other factors such as population characteristics, involvement in Federal Emergency Management Agency-approved hazard mitigation plans, and hazard experience are also examined in multivariate models. Results suggest wide variation in the adoption and extensiveness of usage. In addition, capacity and commitment of local jurisdictions have significant effects on the adoption of hazard mitigation policy and strategies.
Eliot Jennings, University of North Texas
Sudha Arlikatti, University of North Texas
Decision Support Technologies in Disaster Response: The Use of WebEOC and E-team Softwares by County Emergency Management Agencies
Technology is used in all aspects of emergency management. One trend in emergency management is the utilization of decision-support technologies (DST) such as WebEOC and E-team in managing the response to disasters. WebEOC and Eteam facilitate disaster response management by providing for coordination across all levels of government. While the use of government domain technologies such as HazUS and Cameo/Aloha have been studied, little research has focused on factors that lead emergency management officials to acquire DST provided by the private sector. Using the 2006 National Association of Counties Emergency Management survey, this study explores these factors by focusing on the following:
• Influence of GIS on the acquisition of DST;
• Influence of regional planning efforts on acquisition of DST;
• Influence of educational attainment levels of emergency managers on acquisition of DST;
• Influence of county preparedness and threat assessments on acquisition of DST; and
• Influence of county disaster history on acquisition of DST.
We developed an empirical model using binary logistic regression to examine multiple factors that led to the acquisition of DST. The preliminary findings suggest that the use of GIS and having departmental GIS technicians as well as participation in regional emergency management alliances positively influences the acquisition of DST.
The findings help us develop an understanding of factors that influence the acquisition of DST and the challenges involved. As well, the findings suggest that additional research is necessary in order to broaden our understanding of the decision-making process that emergency management agencies must go through in deciding which technologies to acquire.
Joshua Kelly, University of North Texas
Sudha Arlikatti, University of North Texas
James Kendra, University of Delaware
Joanne Nigg, University of Delaware
Manuel Torres, University of Delaware
The Challenges for Unconventional Response Agencies in Serving Haitian Earthquake Survivors: The Needs in NIMS Training and Practices
The Haiti earthquake of January 12, 2010, provided a unique opportunity to further our knowledge concerning mass "invacuation" planning processes. No systematic research assessment has been undertaken to look at how host communities manage the process of receiving evacuees, providing immediate mass care, and resettling displaced individuals.
This research focuses on the initial phase of the evacuation/invacuation process of the 2010 Haiti Earthquake, from the day after the earthquake through the present. Organizations are our units of analysis, and we have used qualitative interview techniques as our data collection method.
An initial review of our data has highlighted the challenges faced by public sector emergency managers as they interacted with and attempted to integrate unconventional emergency response organizations into the Incident Command System. Lindell and Perry state that in order for planning/preparedness for emergencies to be effective, stakeholders at every level need to be included. Findings could suggest how alternative emergency response organizations can plan and train for mass evacuation events or how conventional emergency responders can integrate them with the ICS modular structure.
Organizations that seldom play a role in disasters may be better integrated into disaster response functions when necessary. Overall, disasters are likely to occur more often in the future, leading to more mass evacuations and increasingly complex responsibilities for organizations that, in the past, may not have played a role. To meet the needs of future invacuees/evacuees, public, private, and nonprofit stakeholders need to find new solutions towards collaboration and training while simultaneously meeting the NIMS and ICS requirements.
Sarah Knosp, University of North Texas
Sudha Arlikatti, University of North Texas
James Kendra, University of Delaware
Joanne Nigg, University of Delaware
Manuel Torres, University of Delaware
Role of NGOs in Assisting Post-Earthquake Haitian "Invacuees" to the United States: Compensating or Complementing?
Although agencies from all levels of government are critical in responding to major community-wide disasters, nongovernmental organizations such as the Red Cross and Salvation Army play a vital role in providing relief services, assisting the government in filling gaps. Local NGOs provide significant assistance in extending services because of knowledge of their communities, the geography, and economic and social conditions. These NGOs also have the ability to garner emergency funding and supplies of food, medical care, and shelter from civilian populations who trust them. But the challenges faced are bound to be different while assisting invacuee populations seeking refuge in the United States—as shown in the case of survivors from the Haiti earthquake.
This research focuses on the evacuation/invacuation process of the Haiti earthquake from January 13, 2010, the day after the earthquake to the present. It focuses on roles of the volunteer sector in disaster relief. Initial organizational contacts were identified through media reports and from colleagues returning from prior trips to Haiti and Florida. Data are drawn from interviews and official documents. Within organizations, we interviewed key informants—those who directly participated in or responsible for providing services on behalf of their organizations/agencies for evacuees.
Questions addressed were: What tasks did NGOs of host communities perform to accommodate immediate needs of mass invacuees? Were these compensatory or complementary to services provided by local and state government entities? Did NGOs adapt their day-to-day protocols and service delivery models? What challenges faced multiple interacting stakeholders?
Interviews have highlighted that nonprofits played complementary/supportive or compensatory roles managing the services provided to evacuees while also handling various unexpected situations. Furthermore, findings re-emphasize that success of future responses depends on existing relationships with other organizations and working together before disasters occur.
Scott Knowles, Drexel University
James Kendra, University of Delaware
The Emergency Managers: A Profession on the Edge
Recently, a discussion on the International Association of Emergency Managers listserv detailed the projected areas of expertise for a pandemic flu planner. The skills list ran to about 50 areas of expertise, from public health quarantine to epidemiological monitoring. What profession could possibly expect its members to be expert in so many specialized knowledge areas, and also have the political competency to practice these skills in the midst of a terrifying disease outbreak? Emergency management.
According to the prevailing framework of emergency management in the United States, emergency managers are ready for all hazards, and every phase of a disaster— mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. The reality, though, is that no profession in American history—except, perhaps, for military officers—has assumed so much proficiency and so much knowledge in its practitioners. In the absence of realistic disaster policies and in the retreat of insurance companies from the realm of disaster expertise, emergency management has been a profession on the ascent since the 1990s. The mountain of risk it is climbing, though, is a treacherous one—as Hurricane Katrina demonstrated.
As members of a nascent profession, emergency managers face interwoven challenges in institutionalizing their claims of special expertise in handling dangers. Ownership of terms such as risk, danger, hazard, disaster, vulnerability, pandemic, terrorism, and resilience among others is claimed by multiple specialists. The basic sciences underlying disaster still lack precision in many areas, making practice a continuing foray into uncertainty.
This presentation will examine the challenges of trying to build a profession at the borders of knowledge in numerous areas, managing ambiguity and doubt as much as risk and danger. Drawing on the history of science and technology, the presentation will explore the relationship of science and practice in advancing a profession in a social and policy environment that itself is demanding, shifting, and transient.
Sophia B. Liu, University of Colorado Boulder
Grassroots Heritage: Investigating the Narratives and Socially Distributed Curatorial Activities of Historic Crises in the Social Media Landscape
Cultural memories and heritage of historic crises that are remembered, lost, or forgotten have the power to catalyze social change processes. Examining the fundamental elements of resilient cultures during times of uncertainty can lead to more resilient practices and sustainable development. New opportunities and challenges are emerging as members of the public use ubiquitous information and communication technology (ICT) like social media (e.g., Wikipedia, Facebook, Twitter), particularly in the crisis context.
This paper investigates the socio-technical practices emerging from the use of social media and how these practices help to sustain the living heritage of historic crises. The concepts of grassroots heritage and socially distributed curation are offered as a way of interpreting heritage in the context of the participatory age.
A multi-method investigation was conducted to determine what crisis narratives appeared in social media and how social media were used to sustain these narratives through curatorial activities. The first study surveys the social media presence of 111 crisis events that occurred between 1960 and 2010 to examine if and how historically significant crises were being commemorated in the present day through new media. Then, ethnographic and automated collection methods were used to identify narratives appearing in the social media landscape for four crisis events that exhibited a high social media presence in the survey.
The paper presents five meta-narratives that emerged for the September 11 terrorist attacks in the social media landscape. One critical finding is that people sustain the heritage of historic crises in the digital world by perpetually revising narratives while adapting these messages to the new media of today. A theoretical model of socially distributed curation is also presented with examples of how the narratives pertaining to the September 11 attacks were curated through social media.
Natainia Lummen, University of the West Indies
Vulnerability Analysis of Coastal Communities in Jamaica to the Hurricane Hazard: Case of Portland Cottage and its Environs
As a part of the Caribbean region, Jamaica is susceptible to a wide range of natural hazards. The most frequently occurring hazards are hurricanes and tropical storms. Jamaica’s susceptibility to extreme weather systems brings recurring damage to its coastal zones, resulting in huge social and economic losses. Fifty percent of its economic assets, including two major airports, seaports and their facilities, as well as majority of its tourism infrastructure, are concentrated along the coast. Further, more than 70 percent of Jamaica’s population lives within 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) of the coast, exacerbating vulnerability and risk through settlement patterns, mining, and other land use practices.
After the occurrence of each major hazard, the country’s development program is set back significantly. This has generated a keen interest among governments to change the character and extent of these disaster losses. Theoretical modeling of this phenomena as well as practical applications will expedite the analysis needed to mitigate these impacts.
A field survey was conducted in the community of Portland Cottage, located along Jamaica’s southeast coast. Maps were generated to indicate in adequate detail the nature, extent, and degree of the hurricane hazard, as well as the characteristics of the affected physical, social, and environmental infrastructure. Social data collected indicated that perception influences vulnerability and response. Appropriate response effectively reduced disaster-related losses. Where respondents’ perception of vulnerability was not in line with reality, their mitigation response was inadequate and their vulnerability compounded.
It is hoped that this assessment will inform community based disaster management plans, focusing on ways to minimize the risks from flooding, wind, and storm surges associated with hurricanes and tropical cyclones.
Rasel Madaha, TK
Barbara Wejnert, TK
The Declining Health Status and HIV-Fueled Internal Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case Study of Dodoma, Tanzania
This study reveals that, despite the negative effects of migration, the Tanzanian government has not done enough to address migration-related health issues. This is vividly showcased through inadequate data and information about the effects of migration in the country.
This study is based on analysis of a consultancy report that employed qualitative and quantitative data collection methods in the Morogoro and Dodoma regions of Tanzania, although the Morogoro region is beyond the scope of this study and will be discussed elsewhere.
Dodoma region is selected for its migratory pushing factor, mainly harsh climatic conditions such as unreliable rainfall and prolonged drought. These lead to the severe decline of the health of poor people. The region is entirely dependent on subsistence agriculture and livestock production. The small-scale production is practiced at household level.
The population involved in migration included school dropouts (about 13 to 15 years old), standard seven leavers (15 to 18 years old), youths (18 to 35 years old), parents (fathers and mothers), government employees, and businessmen. Often, as it will be revealed in this study, migration conjoined with harsh climatic conditions poses severe threat because the whole population is likely to be wiped out by diseases such as HIV and severe food insecurity. This study reveals that, following internal migration, many people return to their home villages empty handed and in many cases with HIV.
Laura A. McLay, Virginia Commonwealth University
An Analysis of the Volume and Nature of Emergency Medical Calls During Severe Weather Events
An effective emergency medical service response to emergency medical calls during extreme weather events is a critical public service. Nearly all models for allocating EMS resources focus on normal operating conditions. However, public health risks become even more critical during extreme weather events. So EMS systems must consider additional needs that arise during weather events to effectively respond to and treat patients.
This paper will characterize how the volume and nature of EMS calls are affected during extreme weather events with a particular focus on emergency preparedness. In contrast to other disaster relief studies that focus is on delivery of temporary commodities, we focus on the delivery of routine emergency services during blizzards and hurricane evacuations. The dependence of emergency service quality on weather is explored through a case study using data from Hanover County, Virginia.
The results suggest that whether it is snowing is significant in all of the regression models except for the two patient symptom models. Variables associated with increased highway congestion, which become important during hurricane evacuations, are positively correlated with an increased call volume. The analysis can aid public safety leaders in preparing for extreme weather events.
Shalini Mohleji, University of Colorado at Boulder
Roger A. Pielke, Jr., University of Colorado at Boulder
A New Metric for Gauging Success of the NFIP and NEHRP: Comparing Projections of Pre-Policy Losses to Actual Losses
In this study, we analyze trends in U.S. flood and earthquake losses as a metric for gauging whether the national flood and earthquake policies (the National Flood Insurance Program and the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program, respectively) have been successful in reducing economic losses, as their legislated mandates require.
We create two distinct subsets of disaster loss data: losses before and after the enactment of the policy. The losses before the enactment of policy reflect no influence of that policy and we create the trend in these pre-policy losses and project it into the post-policy era. This projection serves as the baseline for comparison by reflecting the trend expected in losses if no policy had been enacted. The losses after the enactment of policy reflect any influence that the policy has imparted on losses and we similarly create a trend in these post-policy losses.
In comparing the projection to the trend in actual losses, any difference between the two lines reflects the policy's impact on losses. The criterion for policy success requires that post-policy losses must be less than the projected losses and therefore the trend from the post-policy era must be smaller than the projection. This is the only outcome that shows evidence that the policy has an impact in reducing losses to a level lower than would be expected had there been no policy at all.
This study finds that the trends in actual flood and earthquake losses are either increasing at the same rate or a slightly larger rate as the projections from the period prior to the enactment of policy. This suggests there is no discernible evidence that the policies have an impact on reducing losses.
Pallab Mozumder, Florida International University
Aric Shafran, California Polytechnic State University
Jamie Brown Kruse, East Carolina University
Investigating Hurricane Risk Mitigation Behavior: A Policy Experiment
It is evident that investment in natural hazard mitigation activities is efficient from the viewpoint of economic returns. So what determines the level of mitigation investments in preparing for low-probability, high consequence disaster events like hurricanes?
Against this backdrop, we design a decision-making experiment which explores subjects' preferences for a variety of risk mitigation options. In the experiment, subjects choose from a menu of risk mitigation and insurance options that would reduce damages from potential hurricane exposures. Different risk mitigation options are associated with different costs and benefits and subjects receive monetary payoffs based on their choices and their exposure to random hurricane events of varying severity.
While this template can be used to explore a wide range of policy and behavioral issues related to hurricane risk mitigation, we primarily investigate the role of mitigation contingent insurance scheme where insurance rates and deductibles are dependent on the extent of mitigation adopted. We discuss policy implications of our findings.
Branda Nowell, North Carolina State University
Toddi Steelman, North Carolina State University
The Role and Relevance of Social Networks in Disaster Management: How Pre-Incident Relationships among Responders Shape During-Incident Response
There is increasing interest in the role of social networks in shaping outcomes of disaster response efforts. While there is an ample base of theory and descriptive evidence to suggest that pre-incident relationships may influence patterns of communication and cooperation during a disaster, opportunities for systematic investigation of these dynamics have been limited.
In this research, we examine this question in the context of wildfires occurring at the wildland-urban interface. Specifically, we use an innovative combination of social network analysis, qualitative interviews, and hierarchical linear modeling techniques to investigate the extent to which and ways in which pre-fire relationships relate to the quality and frequency of during-fire communications.
Findings suggest pre-fire relationships have a significant impact on the frequency, structure, and quality of communication among responding agencies during a wildfire event. Implications of these findings for advancing both the theory and practice of disaster management will be discussed.
Laurie Pearce, Justice Institute of British Columbia
Simulation Training and Exercise Collaboratory (SIMTEC): Enhancing CBRNE Psychosocial Capacity and Capability Management
Unaddressed, the psychosocial consequences of working in crisis situations can increase the risk of adverse health outcomes and post-traumatic stress, as well as exacerbate economic and social disruption. Despite potential costs, psychosocial consequence management is rarely systematically or comprehensively addressed in exercise training or acknowledged as a critical component of effective disaster leadership and decision making.
Traditional problem solving methods are not used in times of crisis when decisions must be made quickly, often with very little information. Event and command realism are critical components for effective training and testing of awareness, knowledge, and skills by providing a dynamic context in which individuals and teams must learn how to prioritize actions and manage the kind of multi-agency, complex decision-making process that is characteristic of real-life emergency response.
This presentation will present the research project components and methodology and look for audience input, discussion, and interest in participating in a collaboratory as the project evolves during the next four years. The project will include the development of a series of tabletop exercises including multi-media "injects;" a guide for family physicians for treating traumatized victims of mass casualty incidents (MCI); provision of forensic psychosocial interventions at the scene of MCIs; psychosocial protocols for decontamination; and an assessment and guide for the provision of psychosocial interventions in an emergency operations center.
Sally Priest, Middlesex University
Joanna Pardoe, Middlesex University
Simon McCarthy, Middlesex University
Valuing the Local: Exploring the Role of Public Participation in Flood Mapping
Flood mapping is a popular mechanism for communicating flood risk. However, flood maps alone often fail in their objectives for increasing flood risk awareness. For instance, flood maps are typically produced by experts who intend to convey their technical and scientific knowledge to laypersons, without adequate consideration about whether it can be understood or interpreted by the intended audience.
This research explores the role of public participation in flood mapping. There are many potential justifications and advantages for involving stakeholders. A stronger involvement of citizens in risk management can have a positive impact on risk awareness. The local population may provide knowledge useful in risk prevention efforts, the involvement of the public may legitimatize processes and enhance acceptance of prevention measures, and engagement may strengthen local coping mechanisms and increase adaptive capacity.
Results are presented from the European Union-funded RISKMAP project involving multiple workshops held in two locations in England: Chertsey, Surrey, and Croston, Lancashire. The research examined two elements of participation, (1) a substantive approach where the aim of engagement was to harness local knowledge for the improvement of flood maps, and (2) an instrumental approach, where workshops were held to explore the role of flood maps in raising flood awareness.
Valuable local expertise did emerge. However, its usefulness for incorporation into flood maps was limited by its localized nature. Additionally, results indicated while the workshops centered on the flood map had a positive impact on flood awareness and understanding, the maps themselves might only be considered as one tool for engagement within a broader participatory process. Participants recognized the value of public involvement in flood risk mapping for strengthening the trust and relationships with flood management authorities and increasing the local credibility of flood maps. Recommendations for future public engagement in risk mapping are suggested.
Antonia Rosati, University of Colorado at Boulder
Tsunamis and Climate Literacy
After the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, California and other coastal states began installing "Tsunami Warning Zone" and "Evacuation Route" signs at beaches and major access roads. The geography of the Los Angeles area may not be conducive to signage alone for communication of the tsunami risk and safety precautions.
More than a year after installation, most people surveyed did not know about or recognize the tsunami signs. More alarming is that many did not believe a tsunami could occur in the area even though earthquake-generated waves have reached nearby beaches as recently as February 2010. Fifty-two percent of the 147 people surveyed did not believe they would survive a natural disaster in Los Angeles. Given the unique geography of Los Angeles, how can the city and county improve the mental health of its citizens before and after a natural disaster?
This poster addresses the issues of community self-efficacy and resiliency in the face of tsunamis. The data from this survey showed that most people believed climate change would increase the occurrence of tsunamis. The public understanding of water inundation was disturbingly low.
Debra Schneck, Indiana University
Evolving Networks of Federal, State, and Local Activity in the Response to Two Emergencies
In the United States, as with most countries around the world, ultimate responsibility for emergency preparedness and response rests with the government. Yet no single government agency, big or small, can handle all aspects of an emergency response, except for the smallest, most localized, and routine of emergencies. As a result, to properly carry out an emergency response, there is mutual reliance among a variety of government agencies, nonprofits, and private entities. In fact, the American form of federalism itself has been argued to be one of the main challenges to an effective response. For instance, local authorities may be reluctant to turn over responsibilities for dealing with the emergency to state and federal entities; conflicting goals may create tensions between government agencies at different levels; and, rather than acting in unison within a response, there may be varying forms and degrees of collaboration.
In light of this challenge, this paper examines the following question: How does the institution of federalism in the United States impact the design and operation of emergency management and more specifically, help or hinder individual disaster responses? In 2005, issues associated with federalism surfaced within several contexts, for instance, the REAL ID Act, federal requirements associated with Temporary Aid to Needy Families reauthorization, and state and local government opposition to the No Child Left Behind Act. Most prominently, the delayed and poorly coordinated intergovernmental response to hurricanes Katrina and Rita also generated considerable debate in Congress, and among academics and the general public, as to the appropriate federal, state, and local roles in responding to emergencies.
A variety of network analysis techniques were used to "view" and directly compare the evolving responses along the coastline within the states of Louisiana and Mississippi to Hurricane Katrina. To support this analysis, data were collected from both archival records and in descriptions of the roles played and organizations involved as provided in the literature.
Ronald Schumann, III, University of South Carolina
Kevin Ash, University of South Carolina
Gregg Bowser, University of South Carolina
Warning? Where?! Understanding the Roles of Color and Spatial Cognition in User Responses to Tornado Warning Graphics
Balancing principles of risk communication and cartographic design with the goals of weather forecasters and the needs of users remains a formidable challenge. The development of numerical weather models featuring high spatial and temporal resolution outputs will permit the future issuance of long-range probabilistic storm warnings to the public. The effectiveness of such warnings will largely depend on how the warning messages, often presented in graphical form, are interpreted by a general audience untrained in meteorology. In the case of a tornado warning, both the visual salience of the warning graphic and a viewer's spatial understanding of his or her location with respect to the warned area can impact the viewer's warning response.
This study poses two research questions: (1) What impact does color have on a person's (a) affective response and (b) his or her intent to take protective action? (2) What impact does location with respect to the warning polygon have on a person's (a) affective response and (b) his or her intent to take protective action?
We use a survey methodology to test emotional and intended behavioral responses to three versions of a hypothetical tornado warning graphic, each with a unique color scheme, and eight different "you-are-here" location markers within and around each warning polygon. Exogenous variables such as the viewer's domain-specific knowledge, tornado-related experience, and socio-demographic characteristics are also considered. This paper presents results from the pilot survey conducted with university students.
Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis of a Social Vulnerability Index
Indices have emerged over the past decade as a method to model both social vulnerability to hazards and disaster resilience. The typical stages of index development include the selection of indicators, data transformation and normalization, weighting, and aggregation. Each of these stages is imbued with epistemic uncertainty due to choices made by the index developer.
This research seeks to quantify the uncertainty in social vulnerability index ranks and determine which model development stages contribute the most to this uncertainty. The research applies global uncertainty analysis to assess the robustness of a hierarchical social vulnerability index. Global sensitivity analysis identifies the influential and non-influential stages of index development.
The results demonstrate that indices are associated with a high level of epistemic uncertainty. Choices in the weighting and transformation stages had the greatest effect on this uncertainty, while the normalization stage was non-influential. The findings highlight the value of global uncertainty and sensitivity analysis as a diagnostic tool during index development. If applied to the creation of social vulnerability and resilience indices, output metrics with a greater degree of robustness, transparency, and credibility can be produced.
Joseph E. Trainor, University of Delaware
Danielle Nagele, University of Delaware
Brittany Scott, University of Delaware
Matthew Binstead, University of Delaware
Communicating the Tornado Threat
Our analysis builds on existing social scientific theories of response to severe weather. Specifically, we explore public response to severe weather and tornado warnings. Results are drawn from over 1,000 randomly selected households in counties affected by 17 severe weather events and tornado during the 2008, 2009, and 2010 seasons. Specifically, this presentation will provide insights from a number of developing analyses that explore variables of interest to social scientists and meteorologists alike. Among others we will present findings related to the effects of false alarm, lead time, geographic proximity to a threat, and socio-demographics on patterns of protective action.
Craig Trumbo, Colorado State University
Lori Peek, Colorado State University
Brian McNoldy, Colorado State University
Wayne Schubert, Colorado State University
Eve Gruntfest, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs
Holly Marlatt, Colorado State University
Michelle Lueck, Colorado State University
Dynamics of Hurricane Risk Perception: Year Two
Despite a considerable amount of research on the human and social dynamics surrounding hurricanes, there have been few examinations of the manner in which individuals perceive hurricane risk. Further, relatively little is known about how such risk perception may affect evacuation.
This study is designed to contribute through the accomplishment of three goals. First, we are developing a quantitative measure of hurricane risk perception. Second, we are examining how hurricane risk perception and hurricane optimistic bias act on behavioral intention for evacuation and actual evacuation. Third, we will be conducting interviews with individuals during pre-event and recovery periods of hurricane landfalls to gather real-time qualitative data on the information sources, social influences, and decision processes underlying perception of risk and evacuation behavior.
This project is anchored by a set of three mail surveys that includes a panel of individuals living in the most hurricane prone areas of the U.S. Gulf and Atlantic coasts. To draw the sample, all census tracts falling within a 10-mile buffer of the coastal areas of study were identified. Census tracts were arrayed and quota samples were taken to establish a uniform spread of 1,200 sample points along the coast from Brownsville, Texas, to Wilmington, North Carolina. The first wave of data collection was conducted in July 2010. A total of 653 completed questionnaires were returned (56 percent adjusted rate). The questionnaire was eight pages.
This presentation will provide an initial look at the results from the first panel of data collection. We will present work in progress on the development of measures for hurricane risk perception and evacuation barriers, preliminary analysis of an evacuation intent model, a look at the role of disability in risk perception and evacuation, and an overview of the second questionnaire that will be in the field in late June 2011.
Anne-Lise Knox Velez, North Carolina State University
Jason Alexander Briefel, North Carolina State University
Sarah M. McCaffrey, U.S. Forest Service Northern Research Station
Where People Go, and Who Goes Where: Information Sources in Wildfire Evacuation and Road Closure Situations
In the past two decades, the rapid growth of the wildland-urban interface—where human settlements mix with natural vegetation—has coincided with an increase in severity of wildland fires and acres burned. This has increased WUI residents' risk of wildland fire exposure.
Recent research suggests that individuals affected by wildfires desire real-time, locally relevant sources of information, particularly during a wildfire. This paper contributes to the body of literature about which sources of information residents consider useful and reliable both before and during wildfire events by analyzing results of a mail survey sent to residents within a 5-to-10-mile radius of four wildland fires near communities in Arizona, California, Colorado, and New Mexico during the 2010 fire season. The survey was followed by a non-response telephone survey to assess differences between respondents and non-respondents.
This paper will present the types of information that residents most frequently used, which information sources were considered most reliable, and whether there were significant differences in personal attributes that may cause certain groups of individuals to seek information from different sources.
Initial findings suggest that information sources most used by respondents were often not the sources residents considered the most useful or trustworthy. While the most used sources tended to be mass media, the most useful and trusted sources were from more official entities such as fire personnel. Understanding differences in information sources used by different segments of the population and those that are most helpful and trusted can help fire managers and emergency officials more effectively meet community wildfire information needs.
Lucia Velotti, University of Delaware
Joseph E. Trainor, University of Delaware
The Administration of Safety
Scientists, citizens, and the government are all genuine in their desire to create a safer world, however they often have differences in opinion on what makes the world safer and how to achieve that goal. The differences are not surprising but they are important. The following analysis takes this matter seriously and focuses on several critical issues that need to be addressed in order to better understand the relationship between citizens and government in the production of safety. We address three key concerns: (1) What does it mean to "be safe?," (2) How is safety administered in modern societies?, and (3) What is the relationship between government, experts, and citizens in the production of safety? We conclude with analysis of modern day emergency management issues that exemplify the patterns we describe.
Lucia Velotti, University of Delaware
Tricia Wachtendorf, University of Delaware
Natacha Thomas, University of Rhode Island
Jose Holguin Veras, Rennselaer Polytechnic Institute
The Impact of Security Concerns on the Distribution of Relief Following the 2010 Haiti Earthquake
The safety of humanitarian workers in disaster environments is a growing and important concern, yet it is equally important to understand the implications that protection efforts can take on the distribution of disaster relief. This presentation focuses on disaster relief following the devastating 2010 earthquake that struck Haiti. Based on fieldwork and interviews, we discuss the implications of security concerns on the ways different organizations distributed aid.
Research showed that the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) took a key role in providing security in the vicinities surrounding the many internally displaced persons camps. Some aid workers appreciated the security provided by the MINUSTAH while simultaneously admitting that it limited flexibility in the distribution process. For example, the MINUSTAH restricted distribution to scheduled time periods and ceased distribution when the designated period ended, despite the presence of those still not served.
At the same time, the International Red Cross typically distributed relief without MINUSTAH security forces present. Interviews suggested that leaders within the IDP camps served as coordinators and informants regarding the security climate in these cases. IRC personnel repeatedly noted that links to the local community and their pre-established relationships with the Haitian Red Cross allowed for flexibility. Protocol for ceasing aid distribution and temporarily leaving the area was in place, yet local leaders played a more significant role in the process than those efforts involving the MINUSTAH. Data suggested that some impacted communities received considerably less aid than others because aid organization feared the security climate.
Tricia Wachtendorf, University of Delaware
PERFORM: Practice Exercises Reinforcing Flexible and Open Response Management
There is a substantial body of work emphasizing the value of improvisation and sense-making in disaster environments. Yet much of the training for disasters incorporates drills that more resemble rehearsals or the practicing of set scripts that emerge from comprehensive planning efforts. While such drills are important—bringing together personnel from various organizations and reinforcing key planning elements—they arguably do little to hone the skills essential for improvisation.
Presented here is the PERFORM, or Practice Exercises Reinforcing Flexible and Open Response Management, approach. The approach was developed drawing upon: (1) key features of improvisation identified in prior research; and (2) exercises commonly used in improvisation theatre. Exercises were adapted to practice situational awareness, offer acceptance, cue taking, sense-making, and status recognition in disaster settings.
Findings from several pilot sessions used in the development of the approach at discussed. The potential for this new approach to disaster training is highlighted, along with its potential use with more traditional drills.
Hao-Che Wu, Texas A&M University
Michael K. Lindell, Texas A&M University
Carla S. Prater, Texas A&M University
Logistics of Hurricane Evacuation in Hurricanes Katrina and Rita
This study examines household hurricane evacuation logistics—the activities and associated resources needed to reach a safe location and remain there until it is safe to return—during hurricanes Katrina and Rita. These variables include evacuation route information sources, evacuation departure dates, vehicles taken, evacuation routes and destinations, travel distances and times, shelter accommodations, and costs of transportation, food, and lodging.
This research examines whether the locations of counties, demographic variables, and evacuees' departure day have a different effect on the above variables.
Our research confirmed previous findings that evacuees take multiple cars, rely on personal experience and traffic conditions to choose their evacuation routes, and are most likely to choose the homes of friends or relatives as their shelter accommodations. However, the study also found new data on evacuation distances, durations, and costs—as well as associations with demographic and situational variables that influence household evacuation logistics. Study limitations included a modest response rate and, of course, the specific circumstances of these two hurricanes that made landfall in close geographic and temporal proximity with each other. Thus, future study is needed to replicate some of the new findings. Nonetheless, this research produced important information about evacuation logistics.
Berat Yoldas, Middle East Technical University
An Examination of the Factors that Influence the Type of Earthquake-related Activities of Associations in Düzce, Turkey
Mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery are conventionally mentioned as the four main stages of a disaster cycle. On August 17 and November 12, 1999, the northwestern Marmara region of Turkey was hit by earthquakes of 7.4 and 7.2 Richter magnitude, respectively. The reaction of the civil society and various forms of civil society organizations to these earthquakes was strong in the response and early recovery stages. However, over time their activities faded considerably.
This study examines associations, a particular form of civil society organization that have organized earthquake-related activities in Düzce city center, which was hit hardest by the November 12, 1999 earthquake. The organizational characteristics of these associations, the regular activities they organize, and their discourses are assessed through in-depth interviews. The first-hand information gathered from these associations provides insight on (1) why a particular association prefers to engage in a particular type of earthquake-related activity (charity) and not the other (mitigation); and (2) why the earthquake-related activities of a particular association do not extend from response and recovery into mitigation and preparedness.