Poster Session Abstracts
Christopher Badurek, Appalachian State University
Ashleigh Turner, Appalachian State University
Seth Norris, Appalachian State University
John Pine, Appalachian State University
Use of Geovisualization Methods to Enhance Emergency Response and Preparedness Exercises
Emergency response exercises often use simulated emergency scenarios involving partner agencies interacting in command centers to gauge response preparedness. Geovisualization techniques may enhance the quality of emergency response exercises by providing realistic three-dimensional representations of areas after an emergency event. Simulation also adds an interactive fly-through capability to the visualization, enabling emergency managers to experience the disaster unfolding in near real-time.
These techniques were used in a unique collaboration between university researchers and a campus emergency management office to develop a simulation of a flood event to better enable campus, town, and county emergency managers to assess potential physical damage to individual buildings and estimate financial losses. 3D animation was also used to help emergency managers more effectively collaborate on flooding response using more realistic views than are possible from a two-dimensional maps displaying flooding extent.
The lack of accessible data for this rural study area and a need for temporal representation made the task of modeling flood scenarios difficult. This poster reports on how these obstacles were overcome and how GIS software was used to create effective visualizations and animations of the flood extent as valuable tools in simulating the flood. Post-exercise assessment indicates the geovisualization methods and GIS analysis were effectively used in assessing risk, flood damage losses, and improving the flood response and preparedness exercise held on campus involving representatives from multiple government organizations as well as campus emergency response teams.
Eric Best, University of Delaware
Benigno Aguirre, University of Delaware
Shawn Reynolds, University of Delaware
Sherif El-Tawil, University of Michigan
Incorporating Social Behavior Elements in Disaster Simulation Models
IBORC (Interaction Between Building and Occupant Responses During Collapse) introduces our latest building evacuation models incorporating social behavior elements. Traditionally, evacuation models treat humans in a manner similar to grains of sand in an hourglass, disregarding social behavior elements. Using an interdisciplinary approach focusing on social science theory, we have created a class of computational simulation models that include social behavior attributes in addition to individual behavior elements.
These models represent a significant step forward in the accuracy of evacuation models. This presentation focuses on the development of these models and guidelines for other users wishing to add layers of complexity to their models. Our output is significantly different when social behavior is added, supporting our assertion that this level of development is needed to create accurate models.
Currently, our models include individual behavior elements, group behavior elements, and crowding elements that agents consider when making evacuation choices. This complexity results in more accurate models, but introduces additional challenges that need to be addressed by the modeling community. Inclusion of social behavior is a clear step forward for evacuation model building. This interdisciplinary approach can be beneficial to the field in a variety of areas.
Philip Berke, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Gavin Smith, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Ward Lyles, University of North Carolina at Chapel
Sara Reynolds, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Local Mitigation Planning: Do Plans Advance Community Resiliency?
Local mitigation plans play a critical role in supporting disaster loss reduction and long-term resiliency of human communities. Plans are but one step in a broader process to effect change and adaptation. Without setting a goal-oriented direction for the future and a coordinated, action-oriented strategy for achieving those goals, prospects for real change are limited. The Disaster Mitigation Act (DMA) of 2000 requires all local jurisdictions to prepare mitigation plans to be eligible for mitigation funding.
The results reported here are part of a larger study examining the quality and resiliency outcomes of state and local plans prepared under the DMA. A sample of 175 local coastal plans from six states was evaluated to determine how well they support mitigation. Seven principles of plan quality were evaluated, three of which relate to the direction setting elements of the plan (goals, fact base, and proposed policies) and four related to the action-oriented elements of the plan (participation, inter-organizational coordination, implementation, and monitoring). Preliminary findings indicate that there is considerable variability in plan quality scores across the principles, and plans are not designed to advance community resiliency. In some states, plans with high scores for goal and policy principles scored significantly lower for monitoring and implementation principles that are critical to enabling community learning and adaptation. In other states, local plans have narrowly conceived visions with low scores for the goal and policy principles that do not advance a broader vision needed for community resiliency.
Gregg C. Bowser, University of South Carolina
Christopher T. Emrich, University of South Carolina
Jerry T. Mitchell, University of South Carolina
Susan L. Cutter, University of South Carolina
South Carolina Hurricane Evacuation Behavioral Survey
The Hazards and Vulnerability Research Institute at the University of South Carolina is collaborating with the South Carolina Emergency Management Division, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and local emergency managers to update the state’s 2000 Hurricane Evacuation Study. The focus is on potential and actual hurricane evacuation behaviors based on prior evacuation experience.
HVRI developed a questionnaire that inquires about respondents’ previous evacuation behavior, demographic information, social activities, and trust in government and media, as well as preparedness efforts. This survey encompasses over 15,000 households throughout eight South Carolina coastal counties. It improves upon previous studies by incorporating input and content from federal, state, and local emergency managers in its development. The study design also improves the geographic specificity of previous evacuation studies, allowing for finer-scale analysis by subregion, hurricane storm inundation zone, and a shadow evacuation zone.
The data will grant us insight into not only where and why people evacuate, but also what forces keep them in place during a potentially life-threatening event. Questions about community involvement will determine if engaging churches and community centers in hurricane evacuation planning would help effective emergency management practices in the state.
Susan L. Cutter, University of South Carolina
Christopher T. Emrich, University of South Carolina
Scholarship, Research, and Development at the Hazards and Vulnerability Research Institute
The Hazards and Vulnerability Research Institute (HVRI) is an interdisciplinary research, graduate, and undergraduate training center focused on the development of theory, data, metrics, methods, applications, and spatial analytical models for understanding the new field of hazard vulnerability science. HVRI also facilitates local, state, and federal government efforts to improve emergency preparedness, planning, response, and disaster resilience through its outreach activities. These include providing technical assistance to and translational products for the practitioner community as well as training emergency managers in EM GIS applications.
The HVRI is comprised of 17 core faculty and staff members and 17 research affiliates from other disciplines and universities. The HVRI funds roughly 12 graduate and undergraduate research associates through extramural research grants from a variety of sponsoring agencies. Current HVRI projects include:
• Research into the relationships between social vulnerability and the risks associated with climate change sensitive hazards at the sub-county level;
• Continued long-term recovery analysis of residents along the Mississippi Coast since Hurricane Katrina;
• Hurricane evacuation behavioral study for South Carolina;
• Social vulnerability and resilience indicators for coastal zones;
• Research on the populations at risk to chemical releases and the readiness capabilities of response units;
• South Carolina’s near-term guidance on coastal adaptation priorities focused on coastal hazards and the changing dynamics of coastal social vulnerability; and
• SCEMD’s Integrated Hazard Assessment Tool (IHAT) for web-based hazards and social vulnerability assessment.
Omar El-Anwar, University of Washington
Bob Freitag, University of Washington
Ron Kasprisin, University of Washington
Jeana Wiser, University of Washington
Katherine Killebrew, University of Washington
Amanda Engstfeld, University of Washington
Christopher Scott, University of Washington
Tricia DeMarco, University of Washington
Josh Vitulli, University of Washington
Identifying Optimal Tsunami Vertical Evacuation Strategies Using Participatory Planning
In what could resemble Japan’s recent earthquake and tsunami, Washington State’s Pacific Coast is vulnerable to tsunami waves that could be triggered by a local offshore earthquake. The worst-case scenario would be a local Cascadia subduction zone earthquake with magnitude 9.1, which could result in six feet of uniform land subsidence along the coast and a series of destructive tsunami waves. Models estimate that the primary tsunami wave would have a height of approximately 22 feet and will arrive about 40 minutes after ground shaking.
A University of Washington interdepartmental team of faculty and students are working with at-risk communities to develop vertical evacuation strategies for coastal areas of Pacific County. This project, funded by a National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program grant from the Washington Division of Emergency Management, will develop viable, publically acceptable, effective evacuation strategies through a strongly inclusive bottom up public process.
The project adopted a six-phase methodology, including: (1) creation of a steering committee composed of officials, emergency managers, and scientists; (2) site visits to identify opportunities and barriers for vertical evacuation; (3) community-based workshops to determine the location of vertical evacuation structures; (4) SWOT (strength, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis with the community to evaluate location alternatives; (5) design charrettes (intensive meetings) to develop conceptual designs; and (6) open houses where products of the charrettes are reviewed and prioritized.
Glenn Gavi, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
Kelsey McCaslin, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
Olufunsho Ogungbade, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
Amanda Thom, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
Elyce Yates, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
Claudia Mara Dias Wilson, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
Seismic Assessment of Essential Facilities in New Mexico Using the Rapid Visual Screening Method
Unfortunately, the State of New Mexico does not currently have a comprehensive database of facilities like fire stations, emergency operations centers, police stations, and hospitals that are vital to ensuring disaster recovery of areas affected by earthquakes or other natural disasters. Therefore, as a first step to emergency preparedness of the state, this project will perform a seismic assessment of essential facilities in New Mexico.
The research team initially considered facilities located in the Belen to Taos corridor, an area considered vulnerable to seismic incidents. The Federal Emergency Management Agency’s Rapid Visual Screening Method was used to assess the seismic vulnerability of essential structures in the most critical areas of the state. In addition, HAZUS-MH software was used to analyze the data collected and estimate anticipated losses, giving the State of New Mexico and the different counties information essential to the improvement of existing disaster response plans.
Yue Ge, Texas A&M University
Michael K. Lindell, Texas A&M University
Modeling Planners’ Perceptions of Land Use Planning Tools in the U.S. Pacific States
Planners play a key role in the two basic planning processes: plan making and implementation. Studies on the cognitive processes of planners in the plan-making phase are relatively rare in planning research. To address the void in the literature, this study explores planners’ perceptions of land use planning tools in the U.S. Pacific states—Hawaii, Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California. These states have used a variety of tools to sustain the natural environment and build coastal resilience.
Eight categories of tools were rated by planners in a web-based survey of three perceived attributes of land use planning tools—effectiveness, cost, and implementation barriers. The results of data analysis show that the exposure of local land to natural hazards and planning agency capacity primarily explain the variations of planner perceptions of land use planning tools and their attributes, whereas local jurisdiction census characteristics are not significant predictors.
The results indicate that planners rate different types of land use planning tools positively for effectiveness and implementation processes. However cost remains an obstacle when some of the tools are applied in local planning practice. A series of comparisons of perceptions of land use planning tools and their attributes across the five Pacific states demonstrates the different emphases in adopting land use planning tools in these states.
Dana M. Greene, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill
Lessons for Rebuilding After Major Catastrophe: Addressing the Need for Adequate Post-Disaster Housing on the Road to Permanent Housing
With the mass evacuation and devastation of the United States’ Gulf Coast, the human catastrophe in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina highlighted an important lesson—the need for the creation of a unified social policy that facilitates a swift recovery and ensures the path to permanent housing for survivors. As previous studies on housing issues in the post-Katrina recovery well documented, practitioners were not well equipped to meet the housing needs and requirements of all of New Orleans’ hurricane survivors.
The critical need for housing in the aftermath of disaster is addressed by drawing on the Weberian “ideal type” approach and building on the work of disaster sociologists. This article offers a framework for stimulating ongoing dialogue and future research on post-disaster housing, as well as how to efficiently move survivors from emergency shelters to adequate permanent housing. To this end, I maintain an additional component called local transition-placed housing be added to this “ideal type” of post-disaster housing rubric. This will address social policy concerns for adequate housing as well as the socio-cultural, socio-economic, and survivor’s recovery by assisting in the reconnection to the physical environment.
Chris E. Gregg, East Tennessee State University
Stephen Meinhold, University of North Carolina, Wilmington
Liesel Ritchie, University of Colorado Natural Hazards Center
Duane Gill, Oklahoma State University
Jennifer Horan, University of North Carolina, Wilmington
Bruce F. Houghton, University of Hawaii
David M. Johnston, Massey University
Nate Wood, U.S. Geological Survey
Incorporating Social Science into NOAA's Tsunami Program
Large tsunamis such as those in the Indian Ocean in 2004 and Japan in 2011 underscore the need to improve mitigation and preparedness for tsunamis well in advance of large earthquakes. Once an earthquake occurs, warning response is also an issue.
To this end, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration seeks to integrate social science into its Tsunami Program. In year one, this project will focus on aspects of Tsunami Warning Center messages and the TsunamiReady™ program. One phase of the project includes an assessment of how people in the United States receive, interpret, and respond to tsunami messages disseminated by the Pacific and West Coast/Alaska tsunami warning centers in Hawaii and Alaska.
Parallel to this work is the development of a metric to evaluate how well tsunami warning center messages reflect social science research findings on effective warnings. A second phase of the project includes research on community beliefs about mitigation and preparedness activities for tsunamis. Data are being collected in six states—Hawaii, Alaska, Washington, Oregon, California, and North Carolina—and the territories of American Samoa and U.S. Virgin Islands. Results will be combined with research findings from the literature to understand how tsunami warning messages can be improved and how new guidelines for the TsunamiReady™ program can decrease risk from tsunamis in the United States.
Bruce F. Houghton, University of Hawaii
Rebecca J. Carey, University of Hawaii
Samantha J. Weaver, University of Hawaii
Karl Kim, University of Hawaii
Incorporating Social Science into NOAA's Tsunami Program
The National Disaster Preparedness Training Center at University of Hawaii (NDPTC) is a Department of Homeland Security/Federal Emergency Management Agency training partner dedicated to providing critical all-hazards training throughout the United States and its territories, with an emphasis on natural hazards and island and coastal communities. NDPTC, established in 2010, is one of seven members of the National Domestic Preparedness Consortium.
NDPTC has developed partnerships with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Coastal Services Center, International Tsunami Information Center, the U.S. Geological Survey, Pacific Disaster Center, and other agencies to develop training courses, review training modules, certify instructors from underserved communities, and supply subject matter experts and trainers. The first certified course from the center, "Tsunami Awareness," developed by the International Tsunami Information Center, provides basic understanding of tsunamis, hazard assessment, warning and dissemination, and community response strategies to reduce tsunami risk effectively.
Other courses in the final stages of preparation include: Coastal Community Resilience; Coastal Flood Risk Reduction; Volcanic Crisis Awareness; Natural Disaster Preparedness Planning, Response, and Recovery for Community Leaders; Natural Disaster Preparedness for Security Professionals; Natural Disaster Preparedness for Caregivers of Senior Citizens; Hurricane Resistant Community Planning and Building Design; and Social Media for Disaster Response and Recovery.
Rahmawati Husein, Texas A&M University
Walter Gillis Peacock, Texas A&M University
Examining Local Coastal Hazard Mitigation Capacities and Commitment in Texas
There is growing literature on the role that land use planning and development regulations can play toward hazard mitigation. But little empirical research has examined how the local capacity and commitment influence the adoption of land use and development regulations to mitigate hazards in coastal areas. This study investigates policy and practices of local jurisdictions along the Texas coast to mitigate hazards. Specifically, it examines the adoption and implementation of development regulations, building standards, and mitigation policies at the local level. In addition, the study examines the influence of capacity and commitment for the adoption of these hazard mitigation strategies.
The paper provides an overall assessment of the types of land use and development regulations and policies implemented by local jurisdictions based on surveys of leading planner, city directors, and county judge across Texas coastal area. A total of 121 local jurisdictions participated in the survey, including 97 cities and 23 counties.
Statistical models are developed to assess the influence of local capacity and commitment on the adoption and extensiveness of using various forms of land use regulations, hazard mitigation programs, and hazard related building standards. Other factors such as population characteristics, involvement in Federal Emergency Management Agency-approved hazard mitigation plans, and hazard experience are also examined in multivariate models. Results suggest wide variation in the adoption and extensiveness of usage. In addition, capacity and commitment of local jurisdictions have significant effects on the adoption of hazard mitigation policy and strategies.
Li-ju Jang, Chung Shan Medical University
Reasons for Wanting or Not Wanting to Prepare for an Earthquake
A key component of a risk management strategy involves encouraging community members to prepare in ways that increase their capacity to cope with, adapt to, and recover from the consequences of earthquake activity. Given that earthquakes strike without warning, the effectiveness of adaptive and coping efforts would be a function of the degree to which the necessary knowledge, resources, and competencies are organized in advance and can be used promptly and effectively should the need arise.
The study was conducted through in-depth interviews. A total of 12 participants were interviewed to gain better understanding of the community processes and competencies that underpin decisions to prepare in ways that increase their earthquake resilience. All the participants are survivors of the 921 Earthquake in China in 1999. Two have physical disabilities. Seven are male. Eight were in their 50s at the time of interviews. Means-end chain theory was used to guide the interview process. Data on people’s reasons for wanting, or not wanting, to prepare for natural disaster were collected.
Results indicate that resource availability, knowledge of mitigation strategies, disaster-related training, and positive outcome expectancy are reasons people give for preparing for earthquakes. Physical limitations, lead time, inconvenience, and negative outcome expectancy are reasons that discourage people from preparing.
Caglar Koylu, University of South Carolina
Susan Cutter, University of South Carolina
Chris Emrich, University of South Carolina
A Spatial Analytic Approach to Analyzing Acute Exposures from Chemical Facilities and Populations at Risk
Chemical facilities have been singled out for attention as potential targets for terrorist attacks in high-profile settings of an overtly political nature. Risk involved in each individual facility accumulates in regional scale and usually results in some areas bearing a disproportionate burden of risks. To manage this risk, it is crucial to understand the geographic patterns of potential chemical threats as well as the spatial distribution of human occupancies where threats are present.
Chronic releases from chemical facilities have been extensively studied in environmental justice research by employing spatial modeling techniques. However, because of the large degree of uncertainty involved, estimating the risk originating from an acute exposure as a result of a terrorist act greatly differs from a chronic exposure that results from daily releases of chemicals to the environment. Therefore, a spatial modeling approach is also needed to analyze the potential exposure from chemical facilities that would originate from terrorist acts. This research proposes the construction of a relative potential threat index using a spatial modeling approach. It uses a spatial multivariate clustering approach to analyze the relationship between the index, emergency response, and populations at risk, as well as their characteristics.
The proposed approach greatly enhances hypothesis formation for further in-depth analysis by human-led exploration. The results of the analysis show the regional variability in the potential threat of chemicals and highlight some geographies and populations exposed to a disproportionate share of chemical threats.
Yi-Sz Lin, University of Illinois at Springfield
Scott Hicks, University of Illinois at Springfield
Analyzing Social Vulnerability In Hazard-Prone Areas Using Geographic Information Systems—the Case Of Sangamon County, Illinois
This study analyzes the patterns of social vulnerability in regard to the geographical proximity of natural and man-made hazards in Sangamon County, Illinois. Eight demographic characteristics from the 2000 U.S. Census block groups are used to evaluate the level of social vulnerability in each of the census block groups: female-headed household, median income, non-white population, population over 65 years of age, population under 18 years old, poverty, renters, and unemployed.
These characteristics were joined with their corresponding census block group to give a spatial description of the socially vulnerable population. We also overlay the social vulnerability layers with four hazard zones—Federal Emergency Management Agency 100-year flood plain, coal mine subsidence areas, chemical point release sites, and transportation accident corridors—to compare the level of social vulnerability inside and outside the hazard-prone areas.
Yi-Sz Lin, University of Illinois at Springfield
Hung-Lung Wei, University of Illinois at Springfield
Michael K. Lindell, Texas A&M University
Shih-Kai Huang, Texas A&M University
Jeryl Mumpower, Texas A&M University
Hao-Che Wu, Texas A&M University
Risk Perceptions and Protective Actions in a Water Contamination Emergency
Recent studies have shown that resident compliance with local “boil water” orders has only achieved partial success. A number of reasons for noncompliance have been identified, including people’s lack of awareness of risk from different exposure paths, misperceptions of alternative protective actions, and response constraints. To better understand households’ decisions, this study examined compliance with water consumption advisories after a fictitious hurricane (48 students at Texas A&M University) and the May 2010 Boston “boil water” order (110 households in Boston).
Study results revealed that both Texas students and Boston residents strongly differentiate among different exposure paths, with drinking untreated water from the tap perceived as most risky and washing clothes with untreated water perceived as least risky.
Most respondents strongly preferred bottled water to boiled water and boiled water to chlorinated water. In particular, residents in both samples rated bottled and boiled water as much more effective than chlorinated water sources in protecting their health. This appears to be because bottled water was perceived as having a minimal requirement for knowledge and skill even though it was rated high in financial cost.
Finally, both groups rated water utility personnel, public health officials, and emergency managers as high in expertise, trustworthiness, and protection responsibility. Overall, the data suggest these public officials need to explain more clearly how dangerous different exposure paths are, as well as to make arrangements for people who lack bottled water, heat sources to boil water, or bleach to chlorinate it.
Bill Lovekamp, Eastern Illinois University
Elaine Enarson, Independent Scholar
U.S. Gender and Disaster Resilience Alliance
We are a network of women and men working in communities and organizations toward more sustainable, just, and disaster resilient ways of living in the United States. With the leadership of grassroots women, we seek to develop and strengthen the nation’s resilience to an array of hazards and potential disasters.
We seek common ground and collective action for change. Reducing the risk of disasters is not “women’s work” but demands women’s leadership along with men’s. American women have a legacy of activism to build on, working for gender justice and racial justice, for economic fairness and environmental stewardship, for the human rights of children and persons with disabilities, and toward peaceful conflict resolution. Gender and disaster mainstreaming work is not yet aligned with these allies—but this can be changed.
Reducing the effects of the hazards we must live with and putting an end to the disasters that we can stop will take all of us. The GDRA partners with allies across borders for common purpose and the public good. Join in as you can—we need and welcome you.
Jia Lu, University of Southern California
The Wenchuan Earthquake Recovery: Civil Society, Institutions, And Planning
What is the role of civil society in the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake recovery? To what extent do planning institutions promote stability, certainty, a fair distribution of resources, and increase people’s opportunities and freedom?
The purpose of this study is to examine the role of civil society in post-earthquake recovery, mitigation, and preparedness for urban settlements. Specifically, it seeks to explore the recovery experiences of Chinese citizens after the May 12, 2008, Wenchuan earthquake.
This project studies Chengdu, in China’s Sichuan Province, to shed light on these questions by building on planning, institutional, disaster, and civil society literatures. It is based on case study research methods. A mixed-method design combining the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data was used. Primary data collection used multiple sources of evidence, including in-depth interviews, direct and participant observation, and review of archival and secondary data. Secondary sources include audiovisual materials and online social networks. The focus is on understanding the formation and sustainability of local groups and formal nongovernmental organizations during the three-year recovery period.
The evolving network connections among these recovery-oriented groups and organizations are also investigated. The study will contribute to Chinese civil society and to the understanding of an emerging process of the source and extent of “agency freedom” in the context of disaster recovery.
Daniel Morath, University of South Carolina
Social Vulnerability and Public Health: Developing a Metric for Medical Emergency Management in Florida
Individuals with pre-existing medical conditions give rise to special needs populations that may necessitate additional resources in preparing for, responding to, and recovering from disasters. Emerging research in hazards and epidemiology has alluded to the inherent ties between social vulnerability indicators and the quality of public health.
While the concept of social vulnerability includes some indirect measures of special needs populations, these may be insufficient in defining pre-existing medical needs and health access, which correlate with the responsibilities of medical emergency support. Consequently, this research develops an empirically based measure of medical vulnerability as an explicit construct to quantify underrepresented vulnerable populations.
This is operationalized in two subsequent analyses using Florida as the research setting. First, drawing theoretical justification from the literature, an initial set of variables was culled to represent medical need (i.e., disease, disability, drug dependence) and health care access (i.e., hospital beds, physicians, insurance). Using a principal component analysis, the initial collection of candidate variables is reduced to a smaller set of underlying components. These components are summed to create a composite indicator for medical vulnerability. The second analysis combines statistical and GIS techniques to compare the overlap between medical vulnerability and its socioeconomic counterpart using Cutter, et al.'s Social Vulnerability Index.
The results of the analyses suggest that social vulnerability and medical vulnerability are both statistically and spatially disparate in Florida. Consequently, this research concludes that medical and social vulnerability are separate constructs measuring different aspects of community vulnerability with little overlap.
Edwin. B. Ntasin, University of Buea, Cameroon
Samuel. N. Ayonghe, University of Buea, Cameroon
The Impact of Landslides on Public Health and Standard of Living of the Population: A Case Study of the 2003 Wabane Landslides in Cameroon, West Africa
On July 20, 2003, the Wabane caldera suffered one of the worst landslides ever along the Cameroon Volcanic Line. Geologically, the region is made up of the plutonic complex dominated by syenites. The volcanic complex is composed essentially of an alternating sequence of flows and falls of rhyolites, phonolites, trachytes and basanites. It unconformably overlies the plutonic complex. Geochemical and mineralogical data indicated that the area suffered from intensive weathering of the rocks, and this condition is favored by high rainfall, high temperature and pH~5.1, which constitute good conditions for the occurrence of landslides.
The event resulted in the death of 23 people; four seriously injured; 229 displaced families; 1015 displaced persons; and 385 livestock killed. There were also 496 farms, 261 houses, 52 bridges and 86 culverts destroyed. In 2007, four years after the event, the recovery rate was estimated at 10 percent. This has greatly increased poverty, resulting in a high mortality rate.
Therefore a good balance between poverty and food sufficiency, good political will/decision making, and advanced technology is needed for reasonable disaster resilience. The destruction of sewage structures, aquifers, and watersheds facilitated the dissemination of contaminants by flash floods to the lower regions. The high prevalence of diarrhea and respiratory infections greatly increased the mortality rate from overcrowding and unsanitary conditions. The exposure of the fine silica, friable ash deposits increased the airborne microparticulates, causing respiratory diseases.
Stephan A. Parker, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies
Hazards & Security Guides from the TRB Cooperative Research Programs
After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the anthrax attacks that followed, transportation agencies in the United States expanded on their programmatic all-hazards approach developed over decades of experience in traffic incident management, planned special events, and emergency response to natural hazards. Key guidance includes:
A Guide to Planning Resources on Transportation and Hazards provides a framework for thinking about the stages of a disaster from a transportation perspective; describes the most current and innovative hazards-related research to a transportation audience; and introduces research from fields that are not always associated with transportation engineering (including social science, mitigation and land use planning, and policy analysis).
A Guide to Emergency Response Planning at State Transportation Agencies provides operationally oriented and practical guidance for state transportation agencies to plan, organize, staff, train, exercise, manage, implement, and fund preparations to carry out their emergency responsibilities.
Security 101: A Physical Security Primer for Transportation Agencies focuses on measures and concepts designed to: (1) safeguard personnel; (2) prevent unauthorized access to equipment, installations, material, and documents; and (3) safeguard equipment, installations, material, and documents against espionage, sabotage, damage, and theft.
Costing Asset Protection: An All Hazards Guide for Transportation Agencies (CAPTA), is a convenient and robust planning tool for top-down estimation of both capital and operating budget implications of measures intended to reduce risks to locally acceptable levels. CAPTA covers multiple modes of transportation, multiple asset classes, and many individual assets.
For more information: www.TRB.org/SecurityPubs.
Larry Pearce, Canadian Risk and Hazards Network
Canadian Risk and Hazards Network
The Canadian Risk and Hazards Network is a not-for-profit organization established in 2003 in response to a growing demand to promote and strengthen disaster risk reduction and emergency management in Canada. CRHNet creates an environment in which the hazards research, education, and emergency management practitioner communities can effectively share knowledge and innovative approaches that reduce disaster vulnerability.
The primary objectives of the CRHNet are to:
• Initiate the development of an interdisciplinary network of Canadian researchers, academics, and practitioners to enhance multidimensional understanding of emergency management and build Canadian capacity to deal with threats and consequences from all hazards;
• Create a Canadian annual forum for dialogue focusing on disaster risk reduction and to facilitate policy formulation and adoption of best practices in Canada; and
• Provide a Canadian venue to learn from the experiences of other countries by inviting internationally reputed scholars, practitioners, and participants to the symposium and to share Canadian experience and efforts in disaster reduction.
In addition, CRHNet is a permanent member of the Canadian National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, established under the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. The national platform provides strategic advice to policy makers, elected officials, and senior decision makers at the federal, provincial, and local levels.
Twice a year CRHNet publishes HazNet, a journal sharing disaster and emergency management articles from researchers, as well as disaster and emergency management professionals.
Sally Priest Middlesex University
Joanna Pardoe, Middlesex University
Simon McCarthy, Middlesex University
Increasing Flood Awareness and Improving Flood Mapping Using a Stakeholder Dialogue Process
Flood risk maps have been available to the public via the Internet in England and Wales for the past decade. They are considered key mechanisms for informing the public about the flood risks. Mapping is a good way to capture attention and convey spatial information to different audiences, which has led to their increased use as a tool for communicating natural hazard information. Research, however, highlights that risk maps often don’t reach their potential in practice.
The RISK MAP project (ERA-NET CRUE initiative funded by the European Commission) considered the creation and use of risk maps as part of a dialogue process for raising awareness and for improving flood maps. It created a participatory framework allowing the constructive and open engagement and integration of stakeholders—experts, decision-makers, and representatives of the local population—including their views, information requirements, and local expertise in the risk mapping process.
Results are presented from four public workshops held Chertsey in the River Thames catchment and Croston, Lancashire, in England. These workshops explored how users interact with mapped information about flood risk and identified their needs and preferences from flood maps. The workshops also provided an environment in which to test participatory approaches for raising flood risk awareness through community engagement with mapping. The research presents recommendations improving risk mapping and engaging citizens with this process.
Patrick S. Roberts, Virginia Tech
Zack Pesavento, Virginia Tech
Perceiving Crisis: Understanding How a Network Identifies Problems and Solutions to Food Insecurity in Chad and Niger
We ask how organizations associated with a food security network in West Africa develop their perceptions of whether the region is in a food crisis and how these perceptions impact solutions organizations use to mitigate the crisis. This project draws upon the recent experience of a food crisis that occurred in Niger between 2004 and 2006, during which multiple divergent views of the level of crisis and appropriate responses led to a lack of coordination.
At first glance, it appeared that food arrived too little, too late. Upon reflection, however, critics began asking whether the crisis was a really a food crisis, or whether drought, health, trade market failures, gender disparities, or other factors better characterized the crisis.
The research project uses surveys and interviews to map the size and shape of the food security network in Chad and Niger, examine how these organizations define problems and develop solutions, and take into account managers’ cognitive styles. We expect that organizations frame crises in ways that reflect their mission and capacities. Later phases of the study will explore the ways in which new forms aggregating information can produce better and more transparent pictures of the nature of a crisis.
Antonia Rosati, University of Colorado at Boulder
Reverse Calling for Inundation Warnings
After the devastating December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, California and other coastal states began installing "Tsunami Warning Zone" and "Evacuation Route" signs at beaches and major access roads. In addition, the Eureka Weather Forecast Office is working with emergency managers and dispatchers to implement an experimental reverse calling system for use as a method of emergency communication.
REVERSE 911® is a telephonic community notification system used to deliver outbound messages in the event of an emergency. The system uses database and mapping technologies to allow phone calls to be sent to a specific geographic area for delivery of appropriate messages to residents in the affected area.
Through the use of GIS, specific communities can be targeted to receive phone warning messages based on a particular hazardous threat. Because of the complex shape of most flood areas, this study focuses on inundation hazards, such as dam breaks and tsunamis.
More than one way is needed to communicate disasters, hazards, and evacuations. Technology has changed. People get news from more sources than the old public alert system can currently supply. Though the main poster was completed before the Japan earthquake and tsunami. Supplemental information will be presented.
Claire B. Rubin, Claire B. Rubin & Associates
Time Line Charts
Terrorism Time Line: Major Focusing Events and U.S. Outcomes (2001-2008): This chart, which measures 13"x 40," shows major focusing events by year and the influences each event had on reports and analyses; federal statutes, regulations and executive orders; federal response plans; and major federal organizational changes.
Disaster Time Line: Major Focusing Events and U.S. Outcomes (1988-2008): This chart, also 13" x 40", contains information on natural, industrial, technological, and biological events and their outcomes. It also shows major defining events and their outcomes.
Century Time Line (1900-2005): This chart is a companion to the recently published “Emergency Management: The American Experience, 1900-2005,” edited by Claire B. Rubin. The book is available from the Public Entity Risk Institute.
Disaster Time Line for B. C. and Canada: Major Focusing Events and Outcomes (1917-2007): This chart covers 90 years of Canadian disaster history, showing major focusing events and outcomes for the provinces and the country.
To browse the charts online or to obtain more information, visit the Disaster Timeline site.
Ben Smilowitz, Disaster Accountability Project
Daniel Rudolph, Disaster Accountability Project
Brittany La Couture, Disaster Accountability Project
Danielle Levine, Disaster Accountability Project
The New Disaster Policy Wiki and State Crisis Standards of Care Investigation
It is no secret that better preparedness can reduce damage, suffering, and loss of life. Disasters are often followed by significant media attention and expert policy recommendations to prevent identified problems from reoccurring. However, once the dust settles and camera crews pack up and head home, we must keep track of the progress made in implementing these policy recommendations. Disaster Accountability Project’s new “Disaster Policy Wiki” serves as an online clearinghouse of post-disaster policy reports and recommendations. The Wiki provides a user-friendly interface that summarizes reports as well as a forum for actively discussing specific recommendations.
In 2010, the Institute of Medicine published its Crisis Standards of Care report, providing guidance on “policies for use in conditions of overwhelming resource scarcity,” such as after a disaster or public health emergency. Disaster Accountability Project is using this IOM report to analyze the progress of individual state crisis standard of care plan development. We will present our findings to date.
Emma S. Spiro, University of California, Irvine
Carter T. Butts, University of California, Irvine
Jeannette Sutton, University of Colorado Colorado Springs
Matt Greczek, University of Colorado Colorado Springs
Sean Fitzhugh, University of California, Irvine
Nicole Pierski, University of California, Irvine
Informal Online Communication in the Deepwater Horizon Disaster
Informal exchange of information, including gossip and rumor, is a characteristic human behavior. Literature suggests both mundane and important information is exchanged via informal social interaction. Moreover, informal communication ties are often the primary means by which time-sensitive hazard information first reaches members of the public.
In this work, we explore rumors on a popular micro-blogging service about the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill. In particular, we evaluate the extent to which factors hypothesized to govern rumoring activity—the perceived importance of the event, degree of cognitive confusion within the population, and behavioral relevance of the topic—affect communication volume regarding the oil spill. We also consider the impact of formal information sources and external events. Some potential implications for communication behavior in future ecological disasters are discussed.
Jeannette Sutton, University of Colorado Colorado Springs
Charles Benight, University of Colorado Colorado Springs
Disaster Resilient Rural Communities: Access to Online Information and Perceptions of Collective Efficacy
Under the current administration, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act has dedicated more than $7.2 billion to broadband projects designed to increase connectivity and Internet access in rural areas. Little is known, however, about the potential effects of these infrastructure developments for community resiliency among rural communities, especially as it relates to public safety functions, access to information online, and the development of individual and community resiliency among populations at risk of seasonal hazards. It is imperative that the role of online information access on community and individual resilience is studied because of these critical infrastructure investments.
This research examines the question: “How does access to online information affect the perception of individual and collective resilience in rural communities across all phases of disaster?” We investigate the interplay among disaster exposure, individual and family level coping ability perceptions, access to information, and behavioral responses to communications from official and other sources to better understand individual and community resilience.
Jeannette Sutton, Argonne National Laboratory and University of Colorado Colorado Springs
Brett Hansard, Argonne National Laboratory
Paul Hewett, Argonne National Laboratory
Changing Channels: Communicating Tsunami Warning Information in Hawaii
On the morning of February 27, 2010, a potentially destructive tsunami reached the Hawaiian Islands, following a powerful 8.8-magnitude earthquake that struck Chile the prior evening. In the approximately 15 hours between the time of the earthquake and the tsunami making landfall, warning information was communicated through multiple official and unofficial channels, including social media networks.
Focusing on the city of Hilo on the island of Hawaii, the authors examine the strategies used to warn the public and the methods employed to gather and disseminate information and monitor public response. Emergency managers and news media that created and disseminated warning products were among those interviewed. Follow-up interviews were conducted in March 2011 following the Japan earthquake and subsequent tsunami.
Key findings from this study showed (1) traditional news media, especially local radio stations, continue to play a vital role in communicating emergency public information; (2) the use of new technology, such as social media, is widespread in a crisis but only as part of a larger information-sharing strategy; and (3) pre-existing networks and community partnerships are the foundation for information sharing in an emergency.
The authors argue that it is critical that responsible organizations use multiple channels to ensure warning messages are effectively communicated to the public.
Briony Towers, University of Tasmania
Children’s Knowledge of Bushfire Risk Reduction
Southeastern Australia is one of the most fire prone regions in the world. As residential developments continue to encroach into native landscapes, the bushfire hazard is increasing. Moreover, the frequency and intensity of bushfires is expected to increase as a consequence of anthropogenic climate change which will further exacerbate the hazard. So bushfire risk reduction has become a key priority for Australian governments and emergency management agencies.
A key element of disaster risk reduction involves the use of knowledge and education to build a culture of safety and resilience. Several decades of research on public education has repeatedly shown that positive results cannot be expected unless programs respect the particular views of the world held by the community.Although research on the efficacy of education programs for children is lacking, an extensive educational and psychological literature suggests understanding the views of children is particularly important for positive educational outcomes.
To develop bushfire education programs that respect the views of children, this research develops an understanding of children’s knowledge of bushfire risk. Specifically, it creates a theoretical framework representing (1) children’s knowledge of the conditions and processes that create and reduce bushfire risk and (2) the role of individual characteristics and socio-cultural context in the development of this knowledge. This research highlights the importance of understanding and respecting children’s views on hazards and disasters. It also identifies children as a significant, albeit underutilized, resource in bushfire risk reduction.
Craig Trumbo, Colorado State University
Lori Peek, Colorado State University
Brian McNoldy, Colorado State University
Wayne Schubert, Colorado State University
Eve Gruntfest, University of Colorado at CO Springs
Holly Marlatt, Colorado State University
Michelle Lueck, Colorado State University
Psychological Aspects of Hurricane Perception and Behavior
Despite considerable research on the human and social dynamics surrounding hurricanes, there have been few examinations of how individuals perceive hurricane risk. Further, relatively little is known about how risk perception may affect evacuation. As part of this study we are examining how hurricane risk perception and optimistic bias affect intention to evacuate from a major storm.
This project is anchored by a set of three mail surveys that includes a panel of individuals living in the most hurricane prone areas of the U.S. Gulf and Atlantic Coasts. To draw the sample, all census tracts falling within a 10-mile buffer of the coastal areas of study were identified. Census tracts were arrayed and quota samples were taken to establish a uniform spread of 1,200 sample points along the coast from Brownsville, Texas, to Wilmington, North Carolina. The first data collection was conducted in July 2010. A total of 653 completed questionnaires were returned (56 percent adjusted).
This poster provides an initial look at the results from the first panel data collection, focusing on the development of measures for hurricane risk perception and optimistic bias with a preliminary analysis of an evacuation intent model. Findings indicate that risk perception can be seen as both an affective and cognitive orientation of the individual and that optimistic bias for hurricane evacuation is a related, but independent, factor. The overall model, which includes demographics and elements of the Theory of Reasoned Action, predicts about 25 percent of variance in stated intention to evacuate from a major storm.
Craig Trumbo, Colorado State University
Lori Peek, Colorado State University
Brian McNoldy, Colorado State University
Wayne Schubert, Colorado State University
Eve Gruntfest, University of Colorado at CO Springs
Holly Marlatt, Colorado State University
Michelle Lueck, Colorado State University
Social Aspects of Hurricane Perception and Behavior
There has considerable research on various social conditions affecting individual and community orientation toward hurricane risk. This study is designed to contribute to this area of research through a unique design that examines the social circumstances of a range of coastal residents over time. As part of this study we are examining how social factors such as community resilience, vulnerability, evacuation barriers, socioeconomics, and disabilities affect orientation toward hurricane risk and intention to evacuate from a major storm.
This project is anchored by a set of three mail surveys including a panel of individuals living in the most hurricane prone areas of the U.S. Gulf and Atlantic coasts. To draw the sample, all census tracts falling within a 10-mile buffer of the coastal areas of study were identified. Census tracts were arrayed and quota samples were taken to establish a uniform spread of 1,200 sample points along the coast from Brownsville, Texas, to Wilmington, North Carolina. The first data collection was conducted in July 2010. A total of 653 completed questionnaires were returned (56 percent).
This poster provides an initial look at the results from the first panel data collection, focusing on the above-described social factors. We find households with disabled individuals, females, and those with less confidence in community resilience are associated with greater levels of hurricane risk perception. Also, disabilities in the household, less hurricane experience, and fewer evacuation barriers (e.g., work- or family-related, transportation, etc.) are associated with a greater intention to evacuate from a major storm.
Chih-Hsiung Tseng, Texas A&M University
Walter Gills Peacock, Texas A&M University
Carla Prater, Texas A&M University
Jing-Chein Lu, National Science and Technology Center for Disaster Reduction, Taiwan
A Review of Housing Recovery Policy for Indigenous: The Case of the Morakot Typhoon in Taiwan
After the Morakot Typhoon—which struck on August 7, 2009, and was the deadliest typhoon in Taiwan’s history—many indigenous tribal areas were destroyed by debris flows, leaving many of the inhabitants homeless. Housing recovery became a focus of attention. The Taiwan central government proposed the Housing Recovery Program to help victims.
In addition to on-site reconstruction, this program provides two other choices—public housing and permanent placement housing. However, the problems of Taiwan’s indigenous recovery are still emerging, such as reconstruction or relocation, lack of resources, and other issues. In Taiwan, few studies have paid attention to the special needs of indigenous groups and their vulnerabilities.
This study first summarizes the goals of housing recovery, examines the Morakot Typhoon housing recovery policies to see if it meets its goals, and explores the reasons these housing recovery policies cannot meet the expectation of indigenous housing recovery. Finally, this study interviews the households in Namasia, one of the areas most affected by the Morakot Typhoon, to examine impediments to housing recovery.
This study shows that for indigenous people, the concept of housing refers not only to physical buildings—the relationship with the land and social relationships are more important. In addition, their main source of income from crops, so most of them still want to return their land to rebuild their houses.
Morgan Valley, University of Colorado School of Medicine
Debra Kreisberg, University of Colorado School of Medicine
Deborah Thomas, University of Colorado Denver
Comilla Sasson, University of Colorado School of Medicine
Enessa Janes, University of Colorado Denver
Mary Shannon Newell, University of Colorado Denver
Assessing Social Factors Impacting Hospital Disaster Preparedness and Response: A Community-Based Qualitative Study of Linguistically Vulnerable Populations
The United States currently suffers from health disparities that perpetuate conditions in which too many people cannot get adequate healthcare. These disparities are magnified in a disaster. Because underlying community vulnerabilities are often linked to cultural factors, it is important that health care providers and emergency mangers work closely with vulnerable communities to identify their needs, their experiences, and their response behavior.
Building from the results from a Colorado hospital service area social vulnerability analysis, a series of focus groups were conducted to gather baseline evidence from multiple points of view about the complex social factors impacting hospital preparedness and response during a disaster. These groups also provided contextual experiences of vulnerable populations and the impact of community factors on hospital preparedness. The seven participating communities were located across Colorado and were selected for their high representations of Hispanic, limited-English-speaking populations.
Analysis of the focus group data revealed five themes: the amplification of baseline vulnerabilities during disasters; the impacts of trust or the lack thereof; personal agency and structural considerations; not all disasters are alike; collectivism vs. individualism; and the importance of creating holistic hospital preparedness plans with these themes in mind. Ultimately, these research methods and findings can be used to inform future hospital preparedness planning so as to improve service for rapidly diversifying service populations.
Samantha J. Weaver, University of Hawaii
Bruce F. Houghton, University of Hawaii
Rebecca J. Carey, University of Hawaii
Volcanic Crises Awareness: A FEMA-Sponsored Natural Disaster Preparedness Course Designed for Professionals with Crisis Responsibility
Volcanoes have had devastating and long-lasting impacts on landscapes and communities. Warning signs often give us the opportunity to act promptly and reduce risk to the population, but they also introduce higher levels of responsibility and public expectations for officials. As a consequence, pre-eruption education and training at active volcanoes are becoming increasingly sophisticated, recognizing the complex ways in which society works. We introduce a course designed to assist in this process.
We have developed a volcanic crisis awareness course in partnership with U.S. Geological Survey volcano observatory researchers and scientists. This course enhances the abilities of participants to support their organizations' preparedness and response efforts in future volcanic crises. It provides an understanding of (1) processes, impacts, and causes of volcanic hazards; (2) current monitoring and hazard assessment tools and products; (3) volcano warning and dissemination systems and methods; and (4) community response to eruptions and volcanic activity.
It aims to reach professionals with crisis responsibility in both public and private sectors, including emergency managers, government/public decision makers, response personnel, utility managers, planners, and others. The nine modules are titled (1) Welcome, Administration, and Introduction; (2) The Volcano Problem; (3) You and Your Volcanoes; (4) Hazards and Impacts; (5) The Pulse of the Volcano; (6) Case Studies of Crisis Events; (7) Awareness and Preparedness; (8) Bringing It All Together: Eruption Scenario, (9) Administration.
Hao-Che Wu, Texas A&M University
Michael K. Lindell , Texas A&M University
Carla S. Prater, Texas A&M University
Effects of Hurricane Track and Threat Information on Judgments of Strike Probability
Although evacuation is one of the best strategies to protect citizens from hurricane threat, the ways that local officials use hurricane data in deciding whether to issue hurricane evacuation orders is not well understood. To begin to address this problem, we examined the effects of hurricane track and intensity information in a laboratory setting where participants judged the probability that hypothetical hurricanes with a constant bearing (i.e., straight line forecast track) would make landfall in each of eight 45 degree sectors around the Gulf of Mexico.
This experiment involved 162 participants from an introductory psychology subject pool who took part in a five-factor design having three levels each of hurricane training, track information, and strike likelihood judgment; four levels of track direction; and two levels of hurricane intensity. The results showed that the judged strike probability distributions over the eight sectors in each scenario were unimodal and centered on the sector toward which the forecast track pointed. Moreover, although strike probability judgments for the sector in the direction of the forecast track were generally higher than the corresponding judgments for the other sectors, the latter were not zero.
There were no appreciable differences in the patterns of strike probability judgments for hurricane tracks that were represented by a forecast track only, an uncertainty cone only, or a forecast arrow with an uncertainty cone. The study results suggest that people are able to correctly process basic information about hurricane tracks but there are some errors, so more research is needed.
Melissa Wygant, Gustavus Adolphus College
Urban Vs. Rural Flooding: A Study of the Flood Management Practices of Fargo-Moorhead and the MN35K/ND35K Diversion Channel Proposals
The purpose of this study was to analyze and critique the current flood management practices in the Fargo-Moorhead area and ideas proposed for future flood mitigation. The Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area is located in the Red River Valley, which experiences annual flooding. Every year residents must brace themselves for what may be another record flood. In the past, the region has responded to the annual flooding with short-term flood mitigation. However, it has been brought to the attention of the residents and government officials that Fargo-Moorhead should reevaluate its flood management practices to develop permanent solutions.
In 2009, residents in the Fargo-Moorhead area were notified that the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers had decided that diversion channels would be the best permanent solution to combat annual flooding in the metropolitan area. This plan would include the use of tie-back levees which would channel the water upstream and downstream to small farming communities.
Originally, two different versions of the diversion channel were presented—the MN35K diversion channel and the ND35K diversion channel. Both plans would help divert annual floodwaters around the metropolitan area. The study examined the diversion channel proposal from a risks and hazards, markets, and political economy perspective. Emphasis was placed on investigating the impacts the diversion channels would pose on the rural communities upstream and downstream of Fargo-Moorhead.
Jun Zhuang, SUNY Buffalo
John Coles, SUNY Buffalo
Peiqiu Guan, SUNY Buffalo
Fei He, SUNY Buffalo
Xiaojun Shan, SUNY Buffalo
Strategic Interactions in Disaster Preparedness and Relief in the Face of Man-Made and Natural Disasters
Society is faced with a growing amount of property damage and casualties from man-made and natural disasters. For example, the insurance cost of disasters was estimated, before the Gulf of Mexico oil spill, to be about $110 billion worldwide in 2010 alone. Developing societal resilience to those disasters is critical but challenging. In particular, societal resilience is jointly determined by federal and local governments, private and non-profit sectors, and private citizens.
We will present a sequence of games among players such as federal, local, and foreign governments, private citizens, and adaptive adversaries. In particular, the governments and private citizens seek to protect lives, property, and critical infrastructure from both adaptive terrorists and non-adaptive natural disasters. The federal government can provide grants to local governments and foreign aid to foreign governments to protect against both natural and man-made disasters. All levels of government can provide pre-disaster preparation and post-disaster relief to private citizens. Private citizens can also make their own investments.
The tradeoffs between protecting against man-made and natural disasters—specifically between preparedness and relief, efficiency and equity—and between private and public investment, will be discussed.