Enhancing Disaster Resilience and Support for Vulnerable Puerto Rican Students

Publication Date: 2024

Abstract

This research delves into the impact of multiple emergency events over six years on students in Puerto Rico, with a specific focus on the academic outcomes and socio-emotional well-being of vulnerable students. Our initial study revealed significant academic achievement gaps and students’ need for mental health services. This follow-up investigation aims to assess whether the school programs designed to address students' needs are adequately doing so. This research employs an interdisciplinary qualitative approach that merges policy analysis, psychology, and social work expertise. Focus groups with students and interviews with principals, teachers, psychologists, and social workers from two schools were conducted. Findings showed that the key strategies that schools are using to address academic gaps involve personalized attention and increased substitute teacher recruitment. Despite endeavors to enhance support services within schools by incorporating school psychologists and fostering collaboration among support staff, considerable academic and socio-emotional gaps persist. Challenges in addressing these issues and ensuring effective emergency preparedness persist due to resource and infrastructure constraints. The study's findings underscore significant concerns among teachers, principals, and school psychologists regarding adolescent mental health. They cite high stress, frustration, decreased motivation, and lower maturity levels than previous generations. Moving forward, urgent attention is required to prioritize socio-emotional programs, improve inter-agency coordination, and tackle infrastructure deficiencies to bolster students' well-being and academic success during ongoing crises.

The authors of this report were funded as part of Continuation Award 2: Extending Public Health Disaster Research and Community Engagement in Understudied Areas. They received a Track 1 Award for Additional Data Collection and Analysis.

Introduction

Puerto Rico has faced multiple emergency events in the past six years that severely disrupted school services. Hurricanes Irma and Maria in September 2017 devastated the island and led to prolonged school closures, especially in the eastern and central regions. Then, in January 2020, a 6.4 magnitude earthquake and subsequent aftershocks further delayed the start of the spring semester, particularly affecting southern municipalities. Just weeks later, in March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic prompted most schools in Puerto Rico to shift to virtual learning until August 2021. In September 2022, Hurricane Fiona caused significant flooding, compounding the disruptions. These challenges are exacerbated by the fact that 81% of students in K-12 public schools are impoverished, and 31% have a learning disability (Puerto Rico Department of Education, n.d.¹).

In our previous Public Health report (i.e., Segarra-Alméstica, et al. 2021²), we explored the effect of school disruptions on academic outcomes, focusing on vulnerable students, including children with disabilities and children from low-income families. Our findings revealed that the duration and severity of interruptions correlated with adverse academic effects, with students in the areas most affected by disasters experiencing a notable reduction in standardized test scores (Segarra-Alméstica et al., 2022³). Qualitative analysis identified various vulnerabilities among students, including socioeconomic status, disabilities, living in high-risk areas, or being cared for by grandparents. Interviews and focus groups highlighted a decline in the emotional health of school community members and emphasized the crucial support provided by neighboring communities, non-governmental organizations, and municipal governments (Observatorio de la Educación Pública de Puerto Rico, n.d.⁴).

Given these findings, it is crucial to prioritize the swift restoration of services, particularly for vulnerable students. The current follow-up study aims to determine whether schools have adequately addressed students’ academic and mental health needs, how they have adapted to emergencies, and what strategies have been or should be implemented to ensure continued services.

Background

Puerto Rican schools have endured a cascading set of disaster events over the last six years that have led to multiple school closures and student displacement. In 2017, the school year officially began in the public system on August 14, but schools were closed for one week on September 5 due to the close passage of Hurricane Irma along the northern coast. Only a few days after reopening, on September 15, 2017, classes were canceled again due to the imminent threat of Hurricane Maria. (Indeed, 25 schools closed during Irma had not reopened by September 15). The destructive Maria decimated Puerto Rico, leading to school closures that lasted six to 13 weeks and sometimes much longer. According to the official school opening dates provided by the Puerto Rico Department of Education (PRDE), classes resumed between October 23 and December 12, 2017. Twenty-two schools never reopened. Empirical findings indicate that even after schools reopened some students did not return to class until the following semester (Enchautegui-Román et al., 2018⁵; Observatorio de la Educación Pública de Puerto Rico, n.d.; Segarra-Alméstica, 2023⁶).

Hurricane Maria caused infrastructure damage in many schools and PRDE regulations requiring the U.S. Corps of Engineers to inspect before schools could be reopened further delayed restoring student services (Méndez Castillo et al., 2019⁷). Some schools also served as shelters, postponing their reopening even further. Damage to critical infrastructure during the storm caused additional problems, including frequent power outages or water shortages. Due to these and other issues, most schools operated on a half-day schedule for the rest of the semester, with some continuing this schedule until the end of the school year.

On January 7, 2020, a 6.4 magnitude earthquake struck the southern part of the island, causing significant damage and collapsing the electricity grid. Schools in the southern region were particularly affected, with one collapsing. Additionally, many schools were found to have a construction defect called "short columns," making them unsafe in an earthquake (Segarra-Almestica et al., 2023⁸). Consequently, all schools on the island needed inspection before resuming classes. Of 856 public schools, 785 (92%) started classes between January 28 and March 3, 2020, while 71 (8%) were deemed non-functional. Some schools began classes in tents in open spaces.

On March 16, 2020, in-person classes were canceled due to COVID-19. As the system transitioned to online learning, teachers relied on cell phone chats and email to communicate with students and provide instruction, because most students in the public system did not have access to computers or the internet at home (Observatorio de la Educación Pública de Puerto Rico, n.d.; Segarra-Alméstica, 2023). Faced with numerous students who were not performing at grade level due to missed instruction, the PRDE decided to promote most students at the end of the 2019-2020 school year to the next grade, regardless of their attendance or demonstrated proficiency. The situation improved at the beginning of the 2020-2021 school year as schools began issuing computers and internet vouchers to students. However, by December 2020, over one- third of principals surveyed indicated that less than half of their students had access to the necessary equipment (Segarra-Alméstica, 2023). While some schools resumed in-person classes by April 2021, most returned in August 2021, with 12% opting to continue virtual education and 24% starting on reduced schedules (Bauzá, 2021⁹).

This cascade of emergency events and school closures took place at the same time the PRDE was struggling to develop a school infrastructure plan. In the summer of 2018, the Federal Emergency Management Agency and PRDE announced an assessment of all school infrastructure, which led to a school reconstruction plan being finalized four years later in March 2022. In the summer of 2023, PRDE indicated that 31.5% of the reconstruction budget had been utilized, primarily to address issues like the "short columns" mentioned above, roof sealing, and painting. Despite a significant part of the budget being expended, 91 schools nonetheless still needed major reconstruction, with the completion of this work projected for 2026 (Figueroa Rosa, 2023¹⁰). This timeline suggests that the reconstruction efforts would conclude nine years following Hurricane Maria and six years after the earthquake.

One of the strategies that the PRDE implemented during the reconstruction period was the "interlocking" modality in which students attend classes for a half day so that they can share the same facility or allow for repair work. When sharing the facility, one group of students uses the school in the morning while another group uses it in the afternoon. For the 2022-2023 academic year, 49 schools operated in interlocking mode, serving 15,527 students. As of August 2023, 22 schools maintained reduced schedules due to shared campuses or ongoing renovations, hindering the return to full-time, in-person learning, particularly in heavily affected areas.

Our findings outline student needs due to these interruptions and the actions taken, as perceived and categorized by participants' roles in the school. These interruptions have significantly impacted the educational experience and infrastructure, highlighting the need for urgent, comprehensive efforts to restore a stable learning environment.

Literature Review

Disaster Impacts on Children: Evidence From Puerto Rico and Beyond

Holmberg and Alvinius (2022, p.786¹¹) introduced the concept of a "climate precariat," highlighting temporality, insecurity, and identity vacuums as defining experiences for contemporary children. Research by Pane et al. (2008¹²), Gibbs et al. (2019¹³), and Gomez et al. (2017¹⁴) consistently demonstrates the significant emotional, behavioral, and academic impact of socio-natural disasters on children. Lai et al. (2017¹⁵)and Bonanno et al. (2010¹⁶) argued that children, especially adolescents and younger ones, along with females, are particularly susceptible to developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following natural disasters. Bonanno et al. (2010) documented increased substance abuse among adolescents post-disaster, adversely affecting their academic performance. Furthermore, Seddighi et al. (2020¹⁷) highlighted that climate change exacerbates children’s health issues, increasing disease transmission rates and limiting food access.

Strong social and family support networks have emerged as crucial protective factors and predictors of children and youth being able to successfully cope with disaster impacts (Fothergill & Peek, 2015¹⁸; Segarra-Alméstica et al., 2024¹⁹). These findings emphasize the essentiality of disaster preparedness and interventions tailored to children.

Understanding vulnerabilities in this context is important. Flanagan et al. (2011²⁰) introduced a social vulnerability index for disaster management, considering factors like poverty, the presence of children, and individuals with disabilities among vulnerable households. Poverty levels are consistently identified as a significant vulnerability factor by Bui et al. (2014²¹), Morris et al. (2002²²), McMahon (2007²³), and Masozera et al. (2007²⁴). Additionally, populations with medical needs, including individuals with disabilities, are highly vulnerable to natural hazard events (Peek & Stough, 2010²⁵; Padilla-Elías et al., 2016²⁶).

Building off this important research, the United Nations Children’s Fund (2021²⁷) introduced a Children’s Climate Risk Index, encompassing various risk and vulnerability factors that affect children, such as health, education, water, sanitation and hygiene, poverty, communication assets, and social protection. Children's vulnerability in adverse situations depends on factors such as age, mental health, disability, socioeconomic status, exposure to violence, immigrant status, adult support structures, and familial circumstances (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2019²⁸; Clarke et al., 2019²⁹). Ruppel-Schlichting et al. (2013³⁰) stress the importance of assessing children's vulnerabilities and capabilities and recognizing their participatory environments for effective disaster response. Evidence shows that children from vulnerable groups are more likely to suffer mental health and educational impacts during disasters.

Role of Schools and Education in Children’s Disaster Recovery

When natural disasters force school closures, essential aspects of children's lives, including social interactions, teacher support, and access to services, are disrupted. Peek et al. (2018, p. 251³¹) highlight that research has established the relationship between "place attachment and place disruption" in shaping children's well-being and identity development post-disaster. Schools, serving as central hubs for emotional support and social networks from an ecological perspective (Peek et al., 2018), become crucial for implementing communication strategies (Codreanu et al., 2014³²), offering environmental education (Seddighi et al., 2020), and providing safe spaces and support following disasters (Enchautegui-Román et al., 2018). Research by Fothergill and Peek (2015) underscores the pivotal role of schools in children's recovery from disasters like Hurricane Katrina.

In addition to disrupting their academic development, school closures in Puerto Rico also disrupt children’s access to other critical services based in the school such as social work programs, therapy, and psychological support, potentially compromising affected children's outcomes. Academic performance often declines after socio-natural disasters due to various factors, including infrastructure loss, reduced instructional time, and economic hardship (Crespo Cuaresma, 2010³³; Gibbs et al., 2019; Nguyen & Pham, 2018³⁴). Wealthier nations experience milder declines than developing countries, where disasters can lead to increased child labor (Kousky, 2016³⁵).

Children with disabilities face unique and compounded challenges, including interrupted medical services and loss of support equipment (McAdams et al., 2011³⁶). Teachers play a crucial role in these students' recovery by providing support, resources, and routine (La Brocquem et al., 2017³⁷). However, disparities persist, with low-income and disabled children bearing the brunt of disruptions (Condron & Roscigno, 2003³⁸; Segarra-Alméstica et al., 2022).

The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated these issues in a time already marked by extreme precarity due to numerous previous disasters, with global school closures affecting over 1.6 billion students (Kovacevic & Jahic, 2020³⁹). Children’s academic recovery from the pandemic is projected to take a decade (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2021⁴⁰). The digital divide, despite attention paid to it during the pandemic, persists as a severe challenge as 10.1% of U.S. children lack access to online learning (Friedman et al., 2021⁴¹). Disparities are evident in academic performance, with significant declines reported, particularly among younger and low-income students (Kuhfeld et al., 2020⁴²; Wu et al., 2022⁴³; Scarpellini et al., 2021⁴⁴).

Our study is addressing a knowledge gap concerning children’s post-disaster academic recovery. There needs to be more evidence on how schools facilitate recovery in the context of Puerto Rico, which has been beset by multiple successive disasters and is hampered by ongoing economic crises and institutional deprivation that greatly reduces the available resources to address students’ needs and increases their vulnerability.

Research Questions

Nearly seven years after Hurricane Maria became the first in a sequence of cascading natural hazard events, this study evaluates how the school system has adapted. It addressed three research questions:

1. What practices or programs have schools implemented to help students bridge gaps in academic achievement and socio-emotional development caused by school disruptions? How do the principals, teachers, social workers, and students assess the effectiveness of these strategies?
2. How have these programs or services been tailored to address the specific needs of students in vulnerable groups (e.g., living in poverty, having a disability, residing in high-risk areas, living with grandparents)? How do these students perceive these programs? Are these programs flexible enough to cater to the specific needs of the student population?
3. What measures have principals, teachers, and social workers taken to enhance schools' capacity to deliver services during emergencies? What in-school support services and post-disaster action plans have schools formulated?

Research Design

Our follow-up study utilized an interdisciplinary qualitative approach, focusing on student-school interactions. It combined policy analysis with perspectives from psychology and social work. Data collection occurred in person during fieldwork visits to selected schools, except for one interview conducted via Zoom. We used two primary data collection methods: Interviews with school personnel (i.e., principals, teachers, social workers, and psychologists) and focus groups with students. All interviews and focus groups were conducted in Spanish. For this report, the authors have provided translations of the participants’ quotes.

Our study was located at two schools. Using a two-stage sampling process, we selected these schools from a pool of 34 based on location. Due to the small sample size, we will not provide detailed information about our school selection criteria to maintain confidentiality.

Interviews With School Personnel

After obtaining permission from the principal of each school, we distributed informed consent forms to teachers, social workers, and school psychologists. From those who consented, participants were selected based on availability, provided that they had been at the school for at least a year. Guided interviews were conducted using separate instruments tailored for principals, teachers, and support staff, resulting in seven interviews lasting between 30 minutes to one hour each.

Focus Groups With Students

Middle and high school students were chosen for the focus groups, and informed consent forms were distributed to parents through school channels. Once parental consent was received, students were invited. Informed assent forms were provided to ensure that they knew their participation was voluntary and that their rights as participants included the power to choose whether or not to answer questions or to leave the focus group at any time. The focus groups, facilitated by Dr. Sylvia Martínez-Mejías, took place in the school library during the first period. Students shared experiences of hazardous events. Structured to promote open discussion, the focus groups began with trust-building exercises and progressed to explore various topics. This approach aimed to create a safe environment for students to express their perspectives and address the impact of these events on their lives. We conducted two focus groups with 7 to 8 participants each, totaling 15 students overall. They lasted an average of 53 minutes.

Data Analysis Procedures

Our analysis utilized Bradshaw’s need assessment approach, known for its systematic identification of evidence-practice gaps, stakeholder needs, and limitations (Guyatt et al., 2021⁴⁵). This approach aids in understanding the current state, prioritizing areas, and evaluating future service development (Guyatt et al., 2021). Bradshaw's model encompasses normative, perceived, expressed, and comparative needs, providing a comprehensive framework for program planning (Rosa Soberal, 2022⁴⁶). Normative needs rely on established standards, perceived needs stem from individual perspectives, and expressed needs reflect satisfaction levels. Comparative needs compare current needs with those identified previously, offering valuable insights for program improvement (Rosa Soberal, 2022). Each researcher focused on a type of participant in the interviews, focus groups, and analysis. Then, the information, as well as the analysis, were contrasted among the researchers.

Ethical Considerations and Researcher Positionality

We submitted a rigorous Institutional Review Board (IRB) protocol in full compliance with the University of Puerto Rico (CIPSHI Protocol #2324-076) and the Department of Education. The IRB provides strict guidelines to safeguard the confidentiality and well-being of focus groups and interview participants. The researchers are all professors from different disciplines at the University of Puerto Rico, which favors understanding of the context and experiences of the studied population and allows for a multidisciplinary approach.

Findings

School Staff Perceptions

On the Issue of Academic Gaps

The staff have observed that academic performance declined during all three events, with the COVID-19 pandemic having the most significant impact. Reading skills were particularly affected, and there has been an increased reliance on family members or caregivers. Academic gaps have been accumulating, with one participant likening it to a snowball effect, particularly for students with special needs. Comparing the setbacks after Hurricane Maria with the pandemic's impact indicates that the latter has been more severe. One participant noted,: “This generation that came out afterward has experienced an extreme gap.”

The well-intentioned widespread grade promotions during the initial year of the pandemic had unintended consequences. They fostered overconfidence among students and also made grade level standards appear to be arbitrary, which resulted in students feeling a reluctance to engage in schoolwork. This has been especially detrimental for elementary school children, many of whom advanced to the next grade lacking basic reading skills. As one staff member said,

Policy circulars say they have until the third grade to be able to read. Well, it's challenging because then, when I receive them, I can no longer teach them to read because that's not in my curriculum. Those primary grades are so important, and we feel the rebound effect when they reach secondary school.

School-Based Initiatives to Address Achievement Gaps

Personnel mentioned that effective strategies to address academic gaps include personalized attention, tutoring, peer mentoring, adapting assessment methods, in-class intensive work, extending assignment deadlines, and integrating games and art. Some teachers had to purchase materials out of pocket for these activities. Personnel said that technology-based strategies have been less successful due to students' limited computer literacy, unreliable internet access at home and school, and outdated or inadequate school equipment. Indeed, staff and students complained that many of the computers distributed during the lockdown were no longer functional. Even if computers still work, they remain at the original school when students are promoted to a new school.

Among the strategies employed, the staff stresses the importance of personalized attention. Despite regulations stipulating a maximum of 30 students per classroom, school personnel explained that they employed strategies to reduce class size because teachers with smaller groups were able to prioritize individualized attention and deemed it a crucial strategy. This corroborates what teachers told us in focus groups during our previous study in 2021 (Observatorio de la Educación Pública de Puerto Rico, n.d.). Due to preexisting academic gaps, teachers are extending the individual attention method previously focused on students with disabilities to the general population.

Furthermore, substitute teachers have been implemented to ensure continuity in academic activities. A school principal emphasizes that for this strategy to be effective, the necessary materials must be readily available, either through a curated collection of educational resources or by ensuring that absent teachers leave prepared activities for students to work on independently under the supervision of the substitute teacher. The availability of substitute teachers has also contributed to improved discipline by preventing students from loitering outside classrooms during school hours.

The reconceptualization of the special education program was also mentioned. Classrooms exclusively for special education students have been replaced with a three-pathway system in which students are divided into smaller groups based on the severity of their conditions and academic expectations. Beginning in the 2019-2020 school year, classrooms exclusively for special education students underwent restructuring. This restructuring aimed to align the offerings with the three established graduation routes: regular diploma, modified diploma (allowing continuation of technical studies or directed employment), and alternate diploma (for students with severe conditions, such as transitioning to directed employment or assisted home). Official documents from the Department of Education (DEPR) indicate that the goal is to provide students in the special education program with a diploma or certificate that eases their transition into the workforce or pursuit of post-secondary studies (Departamento de Educación, 2019⁴⁷).

In addition to the high poverty incidence and the presence of disabilities, teachers also identify dislocations in family composition as another source of vulnerability. The migratory patterns caused by the events have often left children in the care of grandparents or other relatives. To address the needs of vulnerable populations, teachers have tried to provide individualized attention and be flexible. For example, they assign simpler tasks for students living with their grandparents and meet with them to explain how they can help students with their work. However, this approach is not always effective, as grandparents sometimes do not understand, and some teachers feel that students try to manipulate the situation by blaming teachers for their grades. Additionally, schools offer talks and workshops for parents and teachers to provide tools for addressing these challenges. These perceptions from teachers highlight the importance of improving communication and support networks between families and school staff, a point previously emphasized by Segarra-Alméstica and Gil de Rubio Cruz (2021⁴⁸).

Similarly, social workers recognized the imperative of aligning efforts and bolstering collaboration with teaching staff, academic counselors, and school psychologists to address persistent issues such as absenteeism, academic backlogs, the risk of school dropout, and socio-emotional challenges. In pursuit of this objective, educators have implemented various measures, including providing reasonable accommodations, procuring instructional materials, and extending assignment deadlines. Furthermore, they observed instances where some parents/guardians opt for private tutoring. In some cases, retired teachers offered complimentary tutoring sessions, while in other instances, summer programs were initiated as a preventive measure against academic setbacks.

Limitations and Unmet Academic Needs

Access to technology emerges as a significant challenge for students, significantly impacting their educational experience. Many students have outdated computer equipment and rely on cell phones for communication, and the electrical infrastructure is unstable. Although programs for solar panels exist, they need more flexibility to accommodate families in poverty who cannot access services online. Additionally, the geographical limitations mean that not all families have internet accessibility. Regarding access to technology, a participant expressed, "We need to make changes in line with the times, but at the same time be sensitive to the poverty conditions of many families."

Moreover, they acknowledged some students' significant academic delays, increasing the risk of dropping out. Despite the existence of placement tests, bureaucratic processes contribute to slow mobility. For instance, while free exams were previously available as a substitute for ninth to twelfth-grade students, advancing a child by more than a year now necessitates navigating an internal protocol.

Other challenges cited by school staff include perceived parental support deficits, student motivation deficiencies and permissive parenting styles, a significant proportion of students in special education, and the simultaneous expectation that teachers be trained in and proficiently use new technologies.

Student Socio-Emotional and Mental Health Needs

On a socio-emotional level, personnel perceived most students as exhibiting some form of diagnosable issue. Observed conduct included decreased interest in academics, increased substance use, cell phone addiction, and shifts in behavior leading to a heightened sense of impunity—also, posttraumatic stress surfaced during situations reminiscent of past emergencies.

The staff pointed out that social and emotional development have been significantly affected. They understand that this generation of students is more emotionally vulnerable, suffering conditions such as anxiety and depression that affect their teaching-learning process and are intensified by other situations of mistreatment and lack of resources and attention in their homes. Teachers mentioned that students today seem more dependent on their caregivers and less mature than previous cohorts.

Regarding social behaviors, personnel said the pandemic lockdown had significantly affected young people, especially teenagers. As described by a behavior specialist:

They were confined, and we can see the students' needs. Because we are social beings, and they have the need to interact with their peers... in that sense, if we compare it to Hurricane Maria, the social need was greater during the pandemic... I believe their greatest need is to share, fraternize, get to know each other. And that is evident in the sense that sometimes their interaction skills are not the best and bullying still occurs in schools.

Social workers recognized the cumulative impact of catastrophic events on students and their families, noting a rise in socio-emotional problems such as difficulty in interpersonal communication, depression, anxiety, suicidal ideation, domestic violence, and educational neglect. A participant stated:

For a hurricane, there is preparation. Earthquakes do not warn. The second earthquake occurs on Christmas, Three Kings Day. There is fear of sequelae. The children begin to report anxiety levels between 8 to 10. ... The Secretary of Education visited; he said a few words. There was no help for the children or colleagues. The system collapsed. Anxiety was managed at the moment. Teachers worked with the anxiety of having their children in other schools. The teachers were nervous, the children worse. The children did not have materials. ... The educational region provided a little more moral support but without action. During COVID, there was a lot of absenteeism; many students returned in 2022. Upon returning in person, there were problems with personal relationships; fights, verbal and physical aggression.

School-Based Initiatives to Address Socio-Emotional Needs

The arrival of school psychologists has been crucial in addressing the vast array of emotional problems students are experiencing. Teachers and principals agree that psychologists, social workers, counselors, and nurses are fundamental in addressing these issues. Given the depth of emotional problems observed, principals stress the importance of effective teamwork among psychosocial support staff and school administrators. One principal emphasized the value of collaboration: "They are a good example of teamwork. That's why when one can't attend to a student because they're busy, the other steps in, covers for them, and assists and guides the student."

Nevertheless, it is important to delineate the roles of school team members, recognizing the need to maintain discipline under school leadership. Meanwhile, psychosocial staff focus on directly attending to students while ensuring confidentiality. They stress the importance of observing student behavior in the classroom and throughout the school premises. Their "open door" policy allows students, parents, guardians, or caregivers to visit their offices without prior appointments, and they value referrals from other staff, particularly teachers.

Collaborative assessments and comprehensive service delivery highlight the benefits of a multidisciplinary team—including a psychologist, academic counselor, and social worker. Individual sessions with students effectively assess their needs and strengths and formulate tailored service plans to address academic or socio-emotional challenges. Equally vital are group sessions featuring discussions and workshops on topics such as resilience, self-esteem, study skills, effective communication, emotional regulation, substance abuse prevention, suicide prevention, and bullying. Home visits and meetings with parents or guardians are also considered beneficial.

Staff also emphasize recognizing changes in family structure to offer services tailored to these households. A social worker noted: "Many grandparents raise their grandchildren and tend to be more responsible and involved in education. There are many single mothers, many reconstructed households, and many situations with stepfathers and stepmothers."

At the classroom level, teachers have reduced homework and assessment pressures on students, aiming to work individually with those who request it. Despite recognizing the need for group interventions, resource constraints often limit these to special education groups, reducing attention to the general student population. However, successful strategies, such as involving university students to assist with classroom behavioral issues through workshops and tutoring sessions, have proven effective. One social worker noted, "Students are motivated by other young people."

Social workers noted that the pandemic significantly heightened the vulnerability of students, particularly those with special needs. Consequently, they have coordinated preventive workshops for students and their families in collaboration with other agencies and community organizations. They advocate for initiatives that foster the inclusion of diverse populations. For instance, a social worker recounted organizing the "little hands" mural in November 2023 to promote inclusion. Another initiative integrated students from special education programs with those from regular classes who provided support.

Socio-Emotional Unmet Needs, Limitations, and Recommendations

Despite commendable efforts to address students’ needs, schools face worsening conditions, with students still contending with pressing needs that impact them academically and socio-emotionally. Much of the intervention occurs during crises, attempting to solve immediate situations, as the support staff is insufficient to handle all the work required.

Using an interlocking schedule during specific semesters has significantly hampered the ability of schools to provide extracurricular activities, which are crucial for fostering healthy development and nurturing student leadership. Additionally, space constraints have impeded food distribution, hindered social interaction within the school community, and prevented participation in the Extended Academic Reinforcement Program.

Improving access to services for students with special needs is imperative. Social workers highlighted the increased demand for physical and mental health services among students in recent years, exacerbated by the lack of medical coverage for therapists and psychiatrists. They noted that occupational therapy appointments are often scheduled during school hours and advocated for comprehensive special education service centers to cater to the diverse needs of these students and their families. They also emphasized the necessity of forging partnerships with community groups and government agencies to tackle complex problems effectively.

While resources are available at multisectoral, interdisciplinary, and interagency levels, social workers cautioned that these resources might go untapped without proper coordination and promotion. Referral services to agencies like the Department of Family and the Administration of Mental Health and Addiction Services were identified as crucial measures to address various situations. However, significant challenges persist, including bureaucratic hurdles, lack of coordinated protocols, and scarcity of geographically accessible services. For example, the scarcity of psychiatrists for adolescents covered by public medical insurance makes access to psychiatric hospital services and therapies nearly impossible. Families living outside the metro area often face difficulties accessing services due to inadequate transportation infrastructure, as Puerto Rico lacks a comprehensive public transportation system linking different towns.

There is also concern about students' waning interest in pursuing university studies, with recommendations for the University of Puerto Rico to make its courses and programs more appealing to students.

There is a great need for more mental health services and counseling to address the traumas and problems caused by disasters. Despite creative efforts to boost attendance, workshops or talks aimed at parents and guardians were often poorly attended. Engaging parents and guardians in discussions on essential topics for improving their relationships with their children and managing various stressors proved challenging. One social worker shared an observation regarding the pandemic:

The pandemic implies three consecutive blows, the last straw. Cases of abuse in homes are reported. Educational neglect is observed. Parents do not send their children to school. Absenteeism increases due to fear of contagion. Parents get used to the virtual mode. The amount of completed assignments decreases.

It should be pointed out that schools do not have resources assigned to attend to the emotional and mental health of staff members, which has also been severely affected by the cascading disaster events.

Emergency Preparedness at the School Level

Several measures have been implemented to enhance the school's emergency response capabilities. These include workshops on active shooter situations, earthquakes, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) provided by the Department of Education. The municipality and other public agencies have also conducted talks and drills on earthquakes and tsunamis, including establishing designated meeting places. Efforts have also been made to integrate the roles of psychologists, nurses, and social workers into emergency preparedness plans. Furthermore, integrating technology into the teaching and learning process has been explored. Emergency kits have been provided for every classroom, and staff underscored the importance of sustaining municipal, multisectoral, and interagency partnerships.

Social workers emphasized the importance of addressing emergency needs within the community, such as conducting home visits for census purposes, distributing essential supplies like water and food, and facilitating aid distribution. They noted the community's solidarity during emergencies, where individuals come together to support one another and devise creative solutions.

Despite having better technical knowledge and undergoing emergency training, school staff perceived that their schools lacked access to quality technological and physical infrastructure, which hampers their preparedness for future emergencies. Teachers have expressed reservations about the effectiveness of online education for all students and caution against its widespread implementation. They feel frustrated when asked for recommendations, believing they have exhausted many approaches without controlling factors influencing students' learning at home. While teachers feel adequately prepared for hurricanes and earthquakes, they express concerns about the lack of preparedness for pandemics, mainly due to losing communication with students. Additionally, teachers highlight resource and material shortages as significant challenges hindering their efforts to reach students effectively.

Personnel mentioned numerous urgent issues regarding their schools’ current physical infrastructure and their ability to withstand a hurricane. Staff members noted that the schools’ original physical plant must still be repaired. They also doubted the resilience of the constructions against earthquakes and hurricanes, leading to heightened anxiety among students and staff. Moreover, the ongoing socio-emotional needs among the student population hinder their ability to face future emergencies effectively.

Student Perspectives

Students expressed a lack of awareness regarding the strategies educators and school administrators devised to mitigate the academic setbacks caused by hurricanes, earthquakes, and the COVID-19 pandemic in recent years. The students who participated in the focus groups recognized only "tutoring" as an educational intervention that had been offered to them to address academic needs.

Furthermore, students expressed a need for emotional support in processing the traumatic events they have endured. They identified their peers as a significant source of comfort in alleviating feelings of anxiety and distress.

Among the strategies mentioned to cope with their emotions, students identified talking to their teachers and utilizing services offered by external agencies such as the Puerto Rico Administration for Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services. Additionally, at the school, the students recognized the school psychologist as the primary figure to help them process the negative impact of these events. As one student said, “The psychologist listens. He gives us advice and calls our parents if we need a little more.”

Regarding current strategies to deal with a possible crisis, they identified the following topics: “All classrooms have an emergency bag,” they have been given talks, and they participate in earthquake and tsunami drills.

A significant aspect that emerges from the students' narratives is that the school campus takes on a particular meaning in their lives. The physical facility not only represents an institution but the place where a community gathers. For example, the school community provides a support system that helps students process family conflicts. One student expressed the following: “I feel that sometimes one is sad, and that, like the school is where we are going to be talking to friends, helps us to clear our heads.”

Another noteworthy aspect concerning the emotional needs of students is their acknowledgment that the COVID-19 pandemic was the most impactful event for them. They expressed that isolation had adverse effects not only on their mood but also on their socio-emotional development. Most of the students voiced dissatisfaction with virtual education. As one student said, “It's not the same showing up virtually as showing up in person.” Another student admitted, “At least for my part, it was very difficult for me to learn virtually, as I didn't understand things in the same way.” A third students said plainly, “I didn't have a computer.”

As previously mentioned, damage to school facilities from hurricanes and earthquakes has often led to implementing interlocking schedules in some public schools. Many students have experienced this arrangement and have expressed significant discomfort with it. Half-day schedules disrupt family routines, limit social interaction with peers, and reduce students' sense of belonging to the school. Moreover, students feel these limitations result from the government neglecting to adequately maintain the school infrastructure. Students expressed a significant need for a physical space where they can feel a sense of belonging. Their narratives suggest that lacking this sense of belonging at their school facility negatively impacted their mental health and social development. Students faced various challenges while attending schools on interlocking schedules, including divisions and limitations. They encountered restrictions such as early dismissal and limited access to dining facilities. Moreover, inadequate communication between the school communities sharing the physical space often led to blame and discomfort. Overall, students felt unwelcome and unwanted in the school environment. The altered schedule also complicated family logistics and reduced chances for social and family engagements. Furthermore, poor communication among school staff hindered identifying coping strategies for conflicts, undermining students' sense of safety and leading to feelings of hopelessness that hampered their learning.

From the students' accounts, it became evident that due to natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes, the school premises are perceived as unsafe by them. One student mentioned, for example, “Sometimes the roof leaks.” Another said, “The air sleeves are torn.” The students also highlighted the need for an adequate school facility to provide them with security in their daily activities as well as in the face of natural hazard events such as earthquakes. One student said,

Fix the bathroom doors, the bathrooms, the soaps, the paper because you get locked in there (the bathroom stall). When you get locked in, you have to wait for someone to come and help, or if you're in one bathroom (stall), you have to jump to another.

Another student mentioned, “I feel that the hallways are very small, if there's an earthquake, sometimes you can't get through.” Another student said, fearfully, “If an emergency happens, everything can fall, and we'll be trapped there.” Students also said that they felt humiliated by attending schools in suboptimal conditions due to a lack of adequate maintenance and attention to the school infrastructure. Their narratives revealed a general feeling of hopelessness.

Discussion

Strategies and Programs for Academic and Socio-Emotional Recovery: Analysis of Previously Presented Perspectives

Participants emphasized the effectiveness of individualized teaching methods—meaning that students get more one-on-one instruction designed to meet their needs—in mitigating academic disparities, not only for students with special needs but also for those who have faced significant disruptions in their developmental years. They stressed the importance of maintaining small class sizes and noted the benefits of increased hiring of substitute teachers to support these efforts.

Expanding support services within schools by incorporating school psychologists and fostering collaboration among support staff has proven crucial in addressing socio-emotional needs. However, despite these efforts, substantial academic and socio-emotional gaps persist. Behavior specialists highlighted the inadequacy of current resources to tackle these challenges, underscoring the need to assess available school resources and establish partnerships to effectively leverage additional tools and strategies.

Social workers emphasized the necessity of improving coordination between agencies to enhance the agility and efficiency of services. They identified a lack of coordination between municipal and state services, emphasizing the need for cohesive efforts to promote the well-being of families, children, and youth. Additionally, the absence of psychiatric services and hospitals in nearby areas, compounded by inadequate public transportation, further hinders access to care.

A general analysis of the focus group narratives reveals that students are unaware that their schools have developed strategies to help them address learning loss associated with hurricanes, earthquakes, and the COVID-19 pandemic. Schools and school staff are not adequately communicating with students and parents about these strategies or including them in designing services for their recovery process. As a result, students perceive the absence of government attention to their needs, which generates hopelessness. Among the identified needs is the availability of adequate physical facilities. The lack of attention to these facilities generates instability because students feel insecure in the face of potential natural hazard events. Infrastructure inadequacy emerged as a recurring theme in interviews, with the implementation of interlocking schedules exacerbating teaching disruptions and limiting socialization opportunities. This further diminishes students' sense of belonging on campus, contributing to feelings of resignation and hopelessness. Although school staff acknowledge the infrastructure issues, their narrative does not seem to recognize the emotional and demoralizing effects on students.

Students also expressed a lack of enthusiasm for the learning process, feeling unheard and underserved by the school system. This perception undermines their view of school as a source of support and security instead of seeing it as an unsafe and contentious environment. There is a pressing need to re-establish the significance of school in students' lives, emphasizing its role as a community for fostering human development skills.

Tailored Support for Vulnerable Students: Assessing Program Effectiveness and Flexibility

Participants identified vulnerabilities such as disabilities, poverty, and non-traditional family structures, including grandparents as primary caregivers. The recent reconceptualization of special education in Puerto Rico is one aspect that has yet to be evaluated. Notably, in the same school that reported activities integrating students from special education programs with regular curriculum students, a focus group participant proudly mentioned the accomplishments of the school's special education students. This interaction aids in social and emotional development and civic awareness. Social workers advocated for establishing comprehensive special education service centers to cater to the diverse needs of these students and their families.

Migration post-Hurricane Maria has increased the number of children living with extended family, posing challenges for teachers who must establish strategies to engage with families to provide them with the tools to support students to minimize academic achievement gaps. Focusing on individual attention allows some flexibility to adapt responses to individual student needs. However, this approach also requires more time and resource investment.

Strengthening School Resilience: Emergency Preparedness and Response Strategies by Educational Stakeholders

The general perception is that school staff have acquired knowledge and experience that help them be better prepared to react to emergencies. As a result, schools may be slightly better prepared than before. Nevertheless, physical and technological infrastructure limitations constrain schools' ability to address future emergencies. In particular, the lack of continuous investment in technology hinders the possibility of continuing education services virtually in a situation like the one experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic. The physical infrastructure conditions resulting from hurricane damage, seismic activity, inadequate maintenance, and evident construction flaws further hinder the ability to meet the student population's needs. All these factors have often led to a reduction in instructional time. Furthermore, students' overall emotional health is weakened, reducing their ability to cope with future emergencies.

Conclusions

Public Health Implications

Globally, there is a growing concern over an adolescent mental health crisis (Abrams, 2023⁴⁹; Office of the Surgeon General, 2021⁵⁰; World Health Organization, 2021⁵¹). Successive natural disasters compound this issue amidst a prolonged economic downturn in Puerto Rico. Unsurprisingly, school staff consistently express worry about the mental and emotional well-being of students. In interviews, school staff depict a student population that is highly stressed, frustrated, and lacking motivation. Moreover, it is noted that this population exhibits lower maturity levels than previous cohorts.

The prevalence of emotional distress underscores the urgent need to allocate resources to schools for designing programs that prioritize students' socio-emotional health. These programs should incorporate components such as group therapy, socialization activities, and experiences to foster self-efficacy and independence. Since schools have direct access to children and adolescents, they are ideally positioned to facilitate essential mental health services.

Addressing the issues of motivation and low expectations for the future also necessitates the development of support networks involving schools, families, and the broader community. Once again, schools can play a pivotal role as community liaisons. Efforts should be made to strengthen ties within and between school communities to establish robust networks that promote a sense of belonging among the student population.

Acknowledging the significance of the sense of belonging and security that schools could offer, we must emphasize the importance of maintaining physical infrastructure and the urgency of rehabilitating schools affected by recent events.

Limitations and Future Research

Despite limitations in sample size, participant perceptions were consistent and aligned with previous research. Student focus groups provided valuable insights, complementing staff perspectives. Future research should expand the sample size and include family viewpoints. School personnel often cite a perceived lack of control or reinforcement at home. Including the perspective of families in future research can shed light on the root causes of these limitations and expand the study on how to strengthen trust and support in school-home dynamics.

Understanding the implications of interlocking schedules and resolving conflicts is also essential. Examining dynamics in households where grandparents raise children post-disaster could inform targeted policies. Additionally, evaluating the effectiveness of special education reconceptualization is necessary for future research.

Acknowledgments. We extend our gratitude to the schools that graciously welcomed us, the exceptional students who entrusted us with their experiences, our research assistants, and the Natural Hazard Center Public Health Disaster Research Continuation Award program for generously funding this study.

References